Carbon Fibers and Their Composites (Materials Engineering)

dk2300fm......Page 1
CARBON FIBERS and their COMPOSITES......Page 2
1.2. Description of terms......Page 4
2. A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS ON CARBON FIBERS AND THEIR COMPOSITES......Page 9
The Author......Page 11
Acknowledgments......Page 12
Contents......Page 13
APPENDIX 15: Acronyms for Thermoplastic Polymers......Page 0
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE ELEMENT CARBON, ITS ISOTOPES AND ALLOTROPES......Page 36
1.2.2 Atomic spectra and quantum theory......Page 37
1.2.3 Directional characteristics of atomic orbitals......Page 41
1.2.4 Hybridization of atomic orbitals......Page 42
1.2.5 Covalence and molecular orbitals......Page 44
REFERENCES......Page 48
2.1 THE ALLOTROPES OF CARBON......Page 49
2.2 THE CARBON PHASE DIAGRAM......Page 50
2.3.1.2 High pressure synthetic diamonds......Page 51
2.3.1.5 Diamond-like carbon (DLC)......Page 52
2.3.4 The crystal structure of diamond......Page 53
2.3.5.1 Density......Page 54
2.3.5.2.3 Elastic properties......Page 56
2.3.5.7 Chemical resistance......Page 57
2.4.2.2 Kish graphite......Page 58
2.4.2.3 Synthetic graphite......Page 59
2.4.3 Structure of graphite......Page 61
2.4.4.1 Density......Page 65
2.4.4.2 Mechanical properties......Page 66
2.4.4.2.1 Elastic properties......Page 67
2.4.4.4 Electrical properties......Page 69
2.4.4.5 Chemical resistance......Page 70
2.5 PYROLYTIC CARBON AND PYROLYTIC GRAPHITE......Page 72
2.6 GLASS-LIKE CARBON......Page 75
2.8 GRAPHITE WHISKERS......Page 76
2.9 VAPOR-GROWN CARBON FIBERS (VGCF) AND CATALYTIC CHEMICAL VAPOR-DEPOSITED (CCVD) FILAMENTS......Page 77
2.10.1 Carbon Black......Page 78
2.10.3 Coal......Page 79
2.11.1.1 Discovery and production of fullerenes......Page 80
2.11.1.2 Properties and uses of fullerenes......Page 87
2.11.2.1 Discovery and production of carbon nanotubes......Page 90
2.11.3 Hyperfullerenes......Page 93
REFERENCES......Page 94
3.1 THE EARLY INVENTORS......Page 98
3.2.1 Black ‘Orlon’......Page 99
3.2.2 Some early US carbon fibers......Page 100
3.3.1 Early work in Japan with PAN precursor......Page 104
3.4.1.1 The RAE work with carbon fiber and cross-licencing of their patent......Page 105
3.4.1.3 Testing and properties of single filaments and composites......Page 111
3.4.2.1 Fiber production......Page 112
3.4.2.3 Testing and properties of single filaments and composites......Page 117
3.4.2.4 Carbon fiber reinforced ceramics, glass and cement......Page 119
1. Coating carbon fibers with metal and producing a composite by hot compaction......Page 120
2. Hot working a mixture of metal powders and chopped carbon fiber......Page 121
3.4.3.1 Fiber production......Page 122
3.4.3.2 Factors affecting tensile strength of carbon fibers......Page 124
3.4.3.3 Resin formulation and composite fabrication......Page 125
3.4.4 Work at Morganite Modmor, London......Page 130
3.4.5.1 Carbon fiber production......Page 131
3.4.5.2 Early work with X-ray diffraction to establish structure......Page 133
3.4.5.3 Precursor technology......Page 134
3.4.5.4 Oxidation stage......Page 136
3.4.5.5 Surface treatment......Page 144
3.4.5.7 Production procedures using carbon fiber......Page 145
3.4.5.8 Use and design of carbon fiber in composite materials......Page 146
3.5.2 Courtaulds Ltd., Coventry......Page 147
REFERENCES......Page 148
4.2 PAN PRECURSORS......Page 154
4.2.1.1 Commercially available PAN fiber......Page 155
4.2.2 Requirements for a PAN precursor......Page 156
4.2.4 Comonomers......Page 158
4.2.5.1 Solution polymerization......Page 163
4.2.5.2 Aqueous dispersion polymerization......Page 167
4.2.6.1 Wet spinning......Page 169
4.2.6.3 Air gap spinning......Page 171
4.2.6.4 Melt spinning......Page 172
4.2.7 Processing stages......Page 174
4.2.8.2 Chemical treatment......Page 178
4.2.9 Structure of PAN fibers......Page 179
4.3.1 Historical introduction......Page 181
4.3.2.2 Steeping stage......Page 183
4.3.2.3 Shredding and ageing stages......Page 184
4.3.2.6 Spinning stage......Page 185
4.3.2.7 Final treatment stage......Page 186
4.3.3 Structure of rayon fibers......Page 187
4.4.1 Introduction......Page 189
4.4.1.1 Petroleum pitch......Page 190
4.4.2 Characterization of the pitch......Page 191
4.4.3 Isotropic pitches......Page 193
4.4.4.1 Introduction......Page 194
4.4.4.2 Production of mesophase by pyrolysis......Page 195
4.4.4.4 Production of mesophase by hydrogenation......Page 197
4.4.4.5 Production of mesophase by catalytic modification......Page 198
4.4.5 Melt spinning mesophase precursor fibers......Page 199
4.5 OTHER PRECURSORS......Page 204
REFERENCES......Page 208
5.2 CARBON FIBER MANUFACTURERS......Page 218
5.3 WORLD SUPPLY OF PAN BASED CARBON FIBER......Page 219
5.4 MANUFACTURING COSTS OF PAN BASED CARBON FIBER......Page 220
5.5 CHOICE OF PRECURSOR......Page 224
5.6 DESIRABLE ATTRIBUTES OF A PAN BASED PRECURSOR POLYMER AND ITS SUBSEQUENT PRODUCTION......Page 225
5.8.1 Precursor station......Page 227
5.8.2 Oxidation......Page 228
5.8.3 Oxidation plant......Page 229
5.8.7 High temperature carbonization......Page 233
5.8.8 High modulus fiber production......Page 235
5.9 FINE STRUCTURE AND TEXTURE OF PAN BASED CARBON FIBERS......Page 236
5.10 ASPECTS OF STABILIZATION......Page 248
5.10.1 Structure of PAN fibers thermally stabilized at 350°C......Page 251
5.11 ASPECTS OF CARBONIZATION......Page 254
5.11.1.1 Hot stretching......Page 258
5.11.1.2 Effects of neutron irradiation......Page 261
5.11.1.3 Annealing in the presence of boron......Page 262
5.12 RELATION OF CARBON FIBER TENSILE PROPERTIES TO PROCESS CONDITIONS......Page 263
5.13.2 Alternative polymer formulations......Page 265
5.13.3 A family of controlled resistance carbon fibers......Page 266
5.14 A REVIEW OF THE STABILIZATION OF PAN PRECURSORS......Page 267
5.14.1 Stabilization schemes of PAN and associated observations......Page 268
5.15 MECHANISMS FOR THE CARBONIZATION STAGES OF PAN CARBON FIBERS......Page 287
REFERENCES......Page 292
6.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 301
6.2.1 Choice of a suitable precursor......Page 304
6.2.2 Pyrolysis......Page 306
6.2.4 Hot stretching during processing of carbon fiber......Page 311
6.3 MECHANISMS FOR THE PYROLYSIS AND CARBONIZATION STAGES OF CELLULOSIC BASED PRECURSORS......Page 312
REFERENCES......Page 324
7.2 CHOICE OF MELT SPUN PRECURSOR......Page 327
7.3.1 Stabilization (thermosetting) of spun fiber......Page 328
7.3.2 Carbonization......Page 333
7.3.3 Graphitization......Page 335
7.3.4 Surface treatment of pitch based carbon fibers......Page 336
7.4 THE STRUCTURAL ORDERING AND MORPHOLOGY OF MESOPHASE PITCH FIBERS......Page 337
7.4.1 Mechanisms associated with the preparation of pitch precursors......Page 341
7.4.2 Mechanisms associated with the stabilization of pitch fiber precursors......Page 352
7.4.3 Mechanisms associated with the carbonization of pitch fibers......Page 353
REFERENCES......Page 354
8.2 PREPARATION OF VGCF......Page 357
8.3 GROWTH PROCESS......Page 366
8.5 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES......Page 371
REFERENCES......Page 375
9.2 OXIDATIVE PROCESSES......Page 378
9.2.1 Gas phase oxidation......Page 379
9.2.2 Liquid phase oxidation......Page 381
9.2.3 Anodic oxidation......Page 383
9.3 PLASMA......Page 386
9.4 NON-OXIDATIVE SURFACE TREATMENT—WHISKERIZATION......Page 387
9.5.1 Introduction......Page 388
9.5.2 The effects of surface treatment......Page 389
9.5.3 Summary......Page 393
9.7.1 Deposition from solution of a polymer onto the fiber surface......Page 394
9.7.2 Deposition of a polymer onto the fiber surface by electrodeposition......Page 398
9.7.3 Deposition of a polymer onto the fiber surface by electropolymerization......Page 400
REFERENCES......Page 401
Supplementary references......Page 407
10.2 PRECURSOR HANDLING......Page 408
2. Creel for small tows......Page 409
10.3 DRIVE SYSTEMS......Page 410
10.4 OVENS FOR OXIDATION......Page 411
10.5 REMOVAL OF EFFLUENT GASES EVOLVED IN THE OXIDATION PROCESS......Page 414
10.8 LT CARBONIZATION FURNACE......Page 415
10.8.1 LT furnace gas seals......Page 417
10.8.2 LT furnace insulation......Page 418
10.8.3 Element materials for LT furnaces......Page 419
10.9 LT FURNACE EXHAUST REMOVAL......Page 423
10.10 HT CARBONIZATION FURNACE......Page 426
10.10.2 HT furnace insulation......Page 427
10.10.3 Element materials for HT furnaces......Page 428
10.11 TYPICAL CALCULATIONS FOR THE DESIGN OF AN HT FURNACE......Page 429
10.12 SODIUM REMOVAL......Page 431
10.13.1 HM furnace gas seals......Page 432
10.13.3 HM furnace element design......Page 433
10.14 SURFACE TREATMENT......Page 434
10.15 SIZING......Page 435
10.16 DRYING......Page 436
10.17 ONLINE COLLECTION......Page 440
10.18 OFFLINE WINDING......Page 442
10.20 EXHAUST SYSTEMS......Page 446
10.21 DUST EXTRACTION......Page 449
REFERENCES......Page 451
11.2 SERENDIPITY......Page 452
11.4 PROTECTING ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT......Page 454
11.5.2 Determination of velocity......Page 455
3. Thermal anemometer......Page 460
4. Flow measurement with a nozzle or orifice......Page 461
11.6.1 Lateral movement......Page 464
11.6.2 Lateral expansion or contraction......Page 465
11.7 SPLICING SMALL TOWS......Page 466
11.8 DRIVE SYSTEMS AND ROTATING ROLLERS......Page 467
11.9 PRECURSOR CREEL......Page 469
11.10 OXIDATION PLANT......Page 470
11.12 LOW TEMPERATURE CARBONIZATION FURNACE......Page 471
11.13.1 Calibration of pyrometer......Page 472
11.15 SURFACE TREATMENT......Page 473
11.17 WINDING......Page 474
11.19 TREATMENT OF CYANIDE EFFLUENT......Page 475
2. Oxides of nitrogen......Page 477
4. Ammonia......Page 478
11.22 COSH-H REQUIREMENTS......Page 479
11.23.3 Possible hazards with carbon and graphite fibers......Page 480
11.24 THE RISKS OF CARBON FIBER COMPOSITES IN A FIRE......Page 481
REFERENCES......Page 482
12.2 OPTICAL MICROSCOPE......Page 484
12.3 SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (SEM)......Page 487
12.4 TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (TEM)......Page 491
12.5.1 Convention for axes in graphite and carbon fibers and dimensional notation......Page 495
12.5.2 Wide angle X-ray diffraction......Page 497
12.5.4 X-ray powder diffraction......Page 501
12.6 AUGER ELECTRON SPECTROSCOPY (AES)......Page 504
12.7 X-RAY PHOTOELECTRON SPECTROSCOPY (XPS OR ESCA)......Page 506
12.8 ULTRAVIOLET PHOTOEMISSION SPECTROSCOPY (UPS)......Page 508
12.8.1 Introduction......Page 510
12.8.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)......Page 512
12.9 ELECTRON ENERGY LOSS SPECTROSCOPY (EELS)......Page 514
12.11 SECONDARY ION MASS SPECTROMETRY (SIMS)......Page 516
12.11.1 Static SIMS......Page 517
12.11.3 Imaging or microscope SIMS......Page 520
12.12 SCANNING TUNNELLING MICROSCOPY (STM)......Page 521
12.13 ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPY (AFM) OR SCANNING FORCE MICROSCOPY (SFM)......Page 524
REFERENCES......Page 525
13.1.1 Introduction......Page 531
13.1.2 Phenolic resins......Page 532
13.1.3 Polyester resins......Page 533
13.1.4 Epoxy vinyl ester resins......Page 537
13.1.5.1 Bisphenol resins......Page 538
13.1.5.2 Novalac resins......Page 539
13.1.5.4 Tetrafunctional resins......Page 541
13.1.5.6 New developments......Page 542
13.1.5.9 Curing epoxide resins......Page 543
13.1.5.10 Calculating stoichiometric ratios for epoxy resins and curing agents......Page 549
13.1.6 Cyanate resins......Page 550
13.1.7 Polyimide resins......Page 551
13.1.7.1 Condensation type polyimides......Page 553
13.1.7.2.1 The earliest bismaleimides......Page 555
13.1.7.2.2 Bismaleimides......Page 557
13.1.7.2.3 Acetylene (ethynyl) terminated polyimides......Page 559
13.1.9.1 Introduction......Page 560
13.1.9.3 Types of elastomeric modifiers......Page 561
13.1.9.5 Thermoplastic modifiers......Page 562
13.2.1 Introduction......Page 563
13.2.2 Morphology property relationships in semi-crystalline thermoplastics......Page 565
13.2.3 Polyamide (PA) resins......Page 568
13.2.5 Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) resin......Page 570
13.2.7 Polyethersulfone (PES) resin......Page 572
13.3 IMPROVING THE BOND WITH CARBON FIBER/THERMOPLASTICS......Page 573
REFERENCES......Page 574
14.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 580
14.2.1.2 PAN based carbon fibers......Page 581
14.2.1.3 Pitch based carbon fibers (pbcf)......Page 583
14.2.2 Type of matrix......Page 584
1. Furan resin......Page 585
3. Polyimide resins......Page 586
1. Pitch......Page 587
2. Other thermoplastic matrices......Page 588
14.3.2.1 Introduction......Page 589
1. Isothermal CVI process......Page 594
5. Possible new routes......Page 595
14.3.3.1 Low pressure impregnation (LPI)......Page 596
14.3.3.3 Hot isostatic pressure impregnation carbonization (HIPIC)......Page 597
14.4.1 Chemical vapor deposition......Page 598
14.4.2 Liquid infiltration......Page 601
14.5.1 Introduction......Page 602
1. Boron......Page 603
2. Silicon coatings......Page 604
REFERENCES......Page 607
15.2.1 Cement......Page 612
15.2.3.2 Dispersant......Page 613
15.2.4 Work undertaken with mortar and concrete......Page 614
15.2.6 Fabrication processes for cfrc......Page 620
15.3.1 The glass matrix......Page 621
15.3.2.2 Slurry with hot pressing......Page 623
15.3.2.4 Melt infiltration......Page 626
15.3.2.5 Sol gel......Page 627
15.3.3 Work undertaken with carbon fiber filled glass matrices......Page 628
15.3.4 Coating carbon fiber to improve the bond to a glass......Page 630
15.4.2 Types of ceramic matrices......Page 631
1. Silicon carbide (SiC)......Page 632
7. Silicon nitride (Si3N4)......Page 633
15.4.4.3 Filament winding......Page 634
1. Sol gel......Page 635
2. Polymer precursor......Page 636
15.4.4.5 Melt infiltration......Page 638
1. CVI (or CVD)......Page 640
2. Slurry pulse/CVI......Page 641
3. Hot Isotactic Pressing (HIPing)......Page 642
4. Reaction bonding......Page 643
15.4.5 Protective coatings......Page 644
REFERENCES......Page 646
16.3 CARBON FIBER FOR REINFORCEMENT OF METAL MATRICES......Page 657
16.4.1 CVD process......Page 659
16.4.4 Electroless plating......Page 660
16.4.6 Solution coating......Page 661
16.4.8 INCO Ni coated carbon fiber......Page 662
16.5.1 Aluminum......Page 663
16.5.3 Copper......Page 667
16.5.6 Tin......Page 668
16.6.1.3 Fiber matrix interactions......Page 669
16.6.2 Processing methods for fabricating metal matrix composites......Page 670
2. Diffusion bonding......Page 671
6. Squeeze casting......Page 672
7. Fiber tow (liquid) infiltration......Page 673
9. Liquid phase hot pressing, liquid phase diffusion bonding or liquid phase sintering......Page 674
16.6.3.1 Capillarity......Page 675
16.6.3.4 The solidification process and matrix microstructure......Page 676
REFERENCES......Page 677
17.2.1 Filament diameter distribution in PAN tow......Page 685
17.2.3 Determination of fiber moisture content and fiber moisture regain......Page 688
2. Ion chromatograph......Page 689
17.3.1 Mass per unit length......Page 690
17.3.2 Determination of density......Page 691
1. Mounting a single filament......Page 694
2. Determining filament diameter using a Watson image shearing eyepiece......Page 695
3. Determination of filament diameter using a He/Ne laser......Page 696
4. Calibration of a Stereoscan with a traceable reference standard......Page 697
17.3.4.1 Determination of compliance of the tensile test machine system......Page 698
17.3.4.2 Measurment of filament tensile modulus......Page 699
17.3.5 Determination of oxidized PAN fiber finish content......Page 702
17.3.6 Determination of carbon fiber size content......Page 704
17.3.8 Skin core......Page 705
17.4.1 Dry tow test......Page 706
17.4.2 Testing of the impregnated tow......Page 707
17.5 TESTING OF CARBON FIBER YARN AND FABRIC......Page 710
17.5.2 Determination of ends and picks......Page 711
17.6.2 Selection of a suitable grade of paper for resin coating......Page 712
1. Using the Kofler hotbench......Page 713
17.6.4 Determination of the viscosity of a resin mix......Page 714
1. Cetyl trimethylammonium bromide-perchloric acid titration method......Page 715
17.7.3 Fiber content......Page 716
17.8.1 Introduction......Page 717
17.8.2 Preparation of composite specimen from wet resins......Page 718
17.8.3 Preparation of composite specimen from prepreg systems......Page 720
17.8.5 Measurement of tensile modulus......Page 721
17.8.6 Measurement tensile strength......Page 723
17.8.7 Measurement of strain using resistance strain gages......Page 725
17.8.8.1 Interlaminar shear strength......Page 727
1. The torsion test......Page 728
2. Two-rail or three-rail shear test......Page 729
4. Tension coupon test......Page 730
5. The 10° off-axis test......Page 732
17.8.9 Measurement of flexural strength and modulus......Page 734
17.8.10 Measurement of uniaxial compressive strength and modulus......Page 736
17.8.11 Testing of fatigue......Page 738
17.8.12 Measurement of creep......Page 740
17.9.1 Measurement of moisture content......Page 742
17.9.2 Molding......Page 743
17.9.3 Determination of Melt Flow Index (MFI)......Page 745
17.10.1 Optical microscope......Page 746
17.10.2 Laboratory furnace......Page 748
1. Classical DTA......Page 749
3. DSC......Page 750
17.10.3.2 Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)......Page 753
17.10.3.3 Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA)......Page 754
17.10.4 Chromatography......Page 757
17.10.5 Infrared analysis (IR)......Page 760
17.11 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT)......Page 763
17.11.1 Ultrasonic testing......Page 764
17.12.1 Sinclair’s loop test for filament testing......Page 766
REFERENCES......Page 767
18.1 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION......Page 775
18.2 LOCATION OF DATA......Page 776
18.3 MEASURES OF DISPERSION......Page 778
18.5 SAMPLE CORRELATION COEFFICIENT......Page 779
18.6 LINEAR REGRESSION......Page 780
18.7 NORMAL DISTRIBUTION......Page 781
18.9 VARIATION......Page 784
18.11 STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL CHARTS......Page 786
18.11.1 Average and Range (x and R) chart......Page 788
18.11.2 Mean and Standard Deviation (x and Sigma) chart......Page 792
18.11.4 Rules for detecting out-of-control conditions on control charts......Page 794
18.11.5 Cumulative Sum chart (Cusum)......Page 797
18.12 CAPABILITY INDEX......Page 798
REFERENCES......Page 799
19.2 QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND QUALITY ASSURANCE STANDARDS......Page 801
Para 4.10 Inspection and Testing......Page 802
19.4 QUALITY GURUS......Page 803
19.4.1.1 W Edwards Deeming......Page 804
19.4.1.2 Joseph M Juran......Page 806
19.4.2.1 Dr Kaoru Ishikawa......Page 807
19.4.2.2 Dr Genichi Taguchi......Page 808
19.4.2.3 Shigeo Shindo......Page 809
19.4.3.1 Philip B Crosby......Page 810
19.4.3.2 Tom Peters......Page 811
19.4.3.3 Claus Møller......Page 812
19.5 QUALITY CIRCLES......Page 813
19.6 TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT......Page 814
19.7 QUALITY COSTING......Page 816
REFERENCES......Page 817
20.1 THE ROLE OF CARBON FIBERS......Page 819
20.2 TYPES OF CARBON FIBERS AVAILABLE IN THE WORLD MARKET......Page 820
20.3 TENSILE PROPERTIES......Page 828
20.4 FACTORS EFFECTING COMPOSITE STRENGTH......Page 836
20.5 THE IMPORTANCE OF CRITICAL ASPECT RATIO......Page 838
20.6 ELASTIC CONSTANTS......Page 839
20.7 FLEXURAL PROPERTIES......Page 842
20.8 EFFECT OF SURFACE TREATMENT AND SIZING ON COMPOSITE PROPERTIES......Page 843
20.9 COMPRESSION PROPERTIES......Page 845
20.10 THERMAL PROPERTIES......Page 851
20.11 THERMAL EXPANSION OF CARBON FIBERS......Page 857
20.13 CREEP PROPERTIES......Page 859
20.14 IMPACT STRENGTH AND FRACTURE TOUGHNESS......Page 861
20.16 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES......Page 862
20.17 CHEMICAL RESISTANCE......Page 864
20.18 FRICTION AND WEAR......Page 865
20.19 HYBRID COMPOSITES......Page 866
20.20.2 Cement matrices......Page 867
20.20.3 Glass and ceramic matrices......Page 869
20.20.4 Carbon–carbon......Page 872
20.21 METAL MATRICES......Page 873
REFERENCES......Page 877
21.1.1 Virgin carbon fiber......Page 888
1. Chopped strand mat (csm)......Page 890
21.1.2.3 Milled fiber......Page 891
21.1.3.1 Non-woven UD fabrics......Page 892
21.1.4 Woven fabrics (2-D Planar or biaxial reinforcement)......Page 893
2. Basket (Hopsack) weave......Page 895
3. Leno weave......Page 896
4. Mock Leno weave......Page 897
6. Satin weave......Page 898
21.1.6 Knitted fabrics......Page 899
1. Plain knitting (Figure 21.17)......Page 901
21.1.6.2 Warp knitting......Page 903
21.1.8 Braiding......Page 904
3. Wide braided fabric......Page 906
1. Biaxial 2-D braid......Page 907
2. Triaxial 3-D braid......Page 908
21.1.9.1 Multiaxial non-crimp reinforcements......Page 909
1. Producing a stitched fabric by the simultaneous stitch process......Page 910
4. Triaxial weave......Page 912
21.1.9.3 Proprietary 3-D weaving processes......Page 916
21.1.9.5 Braided 3-D multiaxial......Page 917
21.1.9.6 n-D orthogonal blocks......Page 918
21.2 CORE MATERIALS......Page 920
21.3.1 Contact molding wet lay-up......Page 921
21.3.1.2 Spray lay-up......Page 922
21.3.2.3 Thermoset sheet molding compound (SMC)......Page 923
21.3.3 Resin transfer molding (RTM)......Page 924
21.3.3.1 Dow AdvRTM™......Page 925
21.3.3.2 Vacuum assisted resin transfer molding (VARTM)......Page 927
21.3.3.7 SP Resin Infusion Technology (SPRINT™)......Page 928
21.3.3.8 Resin film infusion (RFI)......Page 929
21.3.8 Flow and cure monitoring of resin infusion processes......Page 931
21.3.9 Filament winding......Page 932
3. Polar winding......Page 933
5. Variants of multiaxial winding......Page 934
21.3.10 Pultrusion......Page 936
1. Reinforcement handling......Page 937
4. Heated die to shape and cure the resin......Page 938
7. Post cure oven......Page 939
21.3.11.1 Prepreg manufacture......Page 940
3. Vacuum bag molding......Page 943
4. Press-clave molding......Page 944
5. Autoclave molding......Page 945
6. Quickstep™ Molding......Page 947
21.3.12 Fiber placement systems......Page 948
21.3.13 Mold release......Page 949
21.4.1 The importance of critical aspect ratio......Page 950
2. Long fiber process......Page 951
21.4.3 Injection molding......Page 952
21.4.5 Thermoplastic prepreg......Page 954
21.4.6 Thermoplastic filament winding......Page 955
21.5 HYBRID COMPOSITES......Page 956
REFERENCES......Page 957
22.2 MICROMECHANICS......Page 962
22.4 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF MULTIDIRECTIONAL LAMINATES......Page 967
22.6 BONDING AND JOINING......Page 970
22.9 SMART DEVICES......Page 971
22.10.1 Expanding core technique......Page 972
REFERENCES......Page 973
1. Design......Page 974
2. Composite materials......Page 975
23.1.1 Flameproof applications......Page 977
23.1.1.1 Aviation and aerospace......Page 979
23.1.1.3 Defense and law enforcement......Page 980
23.2.1 Activated carbon fibers (ACF)......Page 981
23.2.4 Biomedical applications......Page 984
23.3.4 Elimination of static......Page 986
23.3.5 Electrodes......Page 987
23.3.6.1 Lithium ion batteries......Page 988
23.3.7 Fuel cells......Page 990
23.3.7.1 Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC)......Page 991
23.3.7.2 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)......Page 992
23.3.7.3 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)......Page 993
23.3.7.4 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)......Page 994
23.3.7.6 Carbon fiber in fuel cells......Page 995
23.4 THERMAL INSULATION......Page 996
23.6.1.2 Civil aircraft......Page 999
23.6.1.5 Propeller blades......Page 1003
23.6.1.6 Antenna, lightening conductors......Page 1005
23.6.2 Space......Page 1008
23.6.4 Flywheels......Page 1009
23.6.5.1 Yachts......Page 1013
23.6.6 Oil exploration......Page 1015
23.6.7.1 Chassis, body and interior......Page 1017
23.6.7.3 Suspension systems......Page 1018
23.6.8.1 Drive shafts......Page 1019
23.6.10 Motor bikes......Page 1020
23.6.13.1 Wind turbine blades......Page 1021
23.6.13.2 Tidal turbine blades......Page 1023
23.6.16 Medical and prosthetic applications......Page 1024
23.6.17 Dental......Page 1026
23.6.18.1 Bicycles, tandem......Page 1027
23.6.18.6 Baseball bats......Page 1028
23.6.18.9 Golf shafts and heads......Page 1029
23.6.18.11 Snooker and pool cues......Page 1030
23.6.19 Musical instruments and Hi-Fi......Page 1031
23.6.19.4 Stringed instruments......Page 1032
23.6.20.2 Knives, fountain pens, watches......Page 1033
23.6.20.5.1 Telescopes......Page 1034
23.7 CARBON FIBERS IN THERMOPLASTIC MATRICES......Page 1035
23.8 CARBON FIBERS FOR CARBON-CARBON APPLICATIONS......Page 1036
23.8.1 Carbon-carbon braking systems......Page 1037
23.8.2 Carbon-carbon clutches and limited slip differentials......Page 1044
23.8.3 Carbon-carbon in space......Page 1046
23.8.5 Rocket motor nozzles and expansion tubes......Page 1047
23.8.8 Carbon-carbon in industry......Page 1048
23.9 CARBON FIBERS IN CEMENT AND CONCRETE......Page 1049
23.9.3 Strengthening of reinforced concrete chimneys, columns, beams and retrofits......Page 1050
23.9.4 New structures with cfrp......Page 1056
23.12.1 Electromagnetic interference (EMI) and heat dissipation......Page 1057
REFERENCES......Page 1058
24.2.1 Precursor developments......Page 1069
24.3 CARBON FIBER......Page 1070
24.5 QUALITY MANAGEMENT STANDARDS......Page 1071
24.7 INNOVATIVE DEVELOPMENTS......Page 1072
REFERENCES......Page 1073
APPENDIX 1: Glossary......Page 1075
APPENDIX 2: The Elements......Page 1086
APPENDIX 3: The Greek Alphabet......Page 1088
APPENDIX 4: Some Definitions and Handy Conversion Factors......Page 1089
APPENDIX 5: ISO Standard Prefixes for SI Units......Page 1090
MASS......Page 1091
PRESSURE AND STRESS......Page 1092
ELECTRICAL UNITS......Page 1093
APPENDIX 7: Textile Terminology......Page 1094
APPENDIX 8: Temperature Estimation from Color......Page 1095
APPENDIX 9: Humidities over Saturated Salt Solutions......Page 1096
APPENDIX 10: Wet and Dry Bulb Humidity Table......Page 1097
Test Solutions......Page 1098
REFERENCE......Page 1099
APPENDIX 12: British Standards on Quality......Page 1100
APPENDIX 13: Abbreviations used in Spectroscopy and Microscopy......Page 1103
1. ABS......Page 1105
3. FEP......Page 1106
4. PA46......Page 1107
5. PA6......Page 1108
6. PA66......Page 1109
8. PA11......Page 1110
9. PA12......Page 1111
10. PA......Page 1112
12. PA (amorphous)......Page 1113
13. PAA......Page 1114
14. PAI......Page 1115
15. PBT or PBTP......Page 1116
16. PC......Page 1117
18. PEI......Page 1118
19. PES......Page 1119
20. PFA......Page 1120
21. PK......Page 1121
22. POM......Page 1122
24. PPO or PPE......Page 1123
25. PPS......Page 1124
26. PPSu......Page 1125
27. PS......Page 1126
28. Psu......Page 1127
29. PTFE......Page 1128
31. PVDF copolymer......Page 1129
32. THV......Page 1130
34. TPX......Page 1131
APPENDIX 15: Acronyms for Thermoplastic Polymers......Page 1133
APPENDIX 16: Companies Involved with Carbon Fibers and their Composites Throughout the World......Page 1135