Carbon Dots in Analytical Chemistry: Detection and Imaging

Front Cover
Carbon Dots in Analytical Chemistry
Copyright Page
Contents
List of contributors
Preface
1 Synthetic strategies toward developing carbon dots via top-down approach
	1.1 Carbon dots—introduction
		1.1.1 Carbon dots prepared by arc-discharge method
		1.1.2 Carbon dots prepared by laser ablation
		1.1.3 Carbon dots prepared by electrochemical method
		1.1.4 Carbon dots prepared by chemical oxidation method
		1.1.5 Carbon dots prepared by ball milling method
	1.2 Conclusion
	References
2 Bottom-up approaches for the preparation of carbon dots
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Bottom-up approaches for the fabrication of CDs
		2.2.1 Hydrothermal method
		2.2.2 Solvothermal method
		2.2.3 Pyrolysis method
		2.2.4 Carbonization method
		2.2.5 Microwave method
	2.3 Conclusion and future perspectives
	References
3 An overview of optical, physical, biological, and catalytic properties of carbon dots
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Optical properties of CDs
		3.2.1 Absorption
		3.2.2 Phosphorescence
		3.2.3 Photoluminescence
		3.2.4 Chemiluminescence
		3.2.5 Electrochemical luminescence
		3.2.6 Up-conversion luminescence
	3.3 Physical properties of CDs
		3.3.1 Quantum yield
		3.3.2 Crystallinity
		3.3.3 Photostability
	3.4 Biological properties of CDs
		3.4.1 Cytotoxicity
	3.5 Catalytic properties
	3.6 Effect of doping
	3.7 Conclusion and future perspectives
	References
4 Characterization of carbon dots
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Structure of CDs
	4.3 Surface passivation and functionalization of CDs
	4.4 Doping in CDs
	4.5 Purification of CDs
	4.6 Characterization techniques of CDs
		4.6.1 UV–vis spectroscopy
		4.6.2 PL spectra
			4.6.2.1 Quantum yield measurements
		4.6.3 FT-IR spectral analysis
		4.6.4 Raman spectroscopy
		4.6.5 DLS measurements
		4.6.6 NMR spectroscopy
		4.6.7 MS analysis
			4.6.7.1 Inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry
			4.6.7.2 Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry
			4.6.7.3 Electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry
		4.6.8 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
		4.6.9 Energy-dispersive spectroscopy
			4.6.9.1 Microscopic techniques
		4.6.10 SEM and HR-TEM analyses
		4.6.11 AFM and STM analyses
		4.6.12 XRD analysis
		4.6.13 Thermogravimetric analysis
	4.7 Conclusions
	References
5 Carbon dots in sample preparation
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Applications of carbon dots in sample preparation
		5.2.1 Solid-phase extraction
		5.2.2 Dispersive solid-phase extraction
		5.2.3 Magnetic solid-phase extraction
		5.2.4 Solid-phase microextraction
	5.3 Conclusions
	References
6 Carbon dots in separation science
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Properties of carbon dots related to separation processes
	6.3 Applications
		6.3.1 Application of carbon dots in magnetic separation
		6.3.2 Application of carbon dots in immunomagnetic separation
		6.3.3 Application of carbon dots in chromatographic separation
			6.3.3.1 Carbon dots for high-performance liquid chromatography
			6.3.3.2 Carbon dots for gas chromatography
		6.3.4 Application of carbon dots in gel electrophoresis and capillary electrophoresis
		6.3.5 Application of carbon dots in sample preparation
			6.3.5.1 Carbon dots for solid-phase extraction
			6.3.5.2 Carbon dots for magnetic solid-phase extraction
			6.3.5.3 Carbon dots for MDSPME
	6.4 Conclusion and future prospects
	Conflict of interest
	References
7 Carbon dots for electrochemical analytical methods
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Carbon dots: synthesis and properties
	7.3 Carbon dots for electrochemical measurements
	7.4 Electrochemical sensing for metal and anionic ions using carbon dots–based materials
	7.5 Electrochemical sensing for H2O2 using carbon dots–based materials
	7.6 Electrochemical sensing for organic-based analytes using carbon dots–based materials
	7.7 Advantages of carbon dots–based electrodes
	7.8 Conclusion
	References
8 Carbon dots-based fluorescence spectroscopy for metal ion sensing
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Synthesis of carbon dots
	8.3 Metal ions detection
	8.4 Carbon dots as fluorescence probe for the detection of biological metal ions
	8.5 Carbon dots as fluorescence probe for toxic metal ions
	8.6 Carbon dots as fluorescence probe for precious metal ions
	8.7 Conclusions
	References
9 Carbon dots-based fluorescence spectrometry for pesticides sensing
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Carbon dots–based fluorescence spectrometry for pesticides sensing
		9.2.1 Sensing of fungicides
		9.2.2 Sensing of herbicides
		9.2.3 Sensing of insecticides
		9.2.4 Sensing of other pesticides
	9.3 Conclusions and future perspectives
	References
10 Carbon dots-based electrochemical sensors
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Properties of graphene quantum dots and carbon quantum dots
		10.2.1 Graphene quantum dots
		10.2.2 Carbon quantum dots
	10.3 Applications to biosensing
		10.3.1 Electrochemical sensors and substrate materials in electrochemical sensing
			10.3.1.1 Alteration procedure
			10.3.1.2 Electrocatalysis function
				10.3.1.2.1 Hydrogen peroxide reduction
				10.3.1.2.2 Organic redox reaction
				10.3.1.2.3 Amino acids
				10.3.1.2.4 Heavy metal ions
		10.3.2 Carriers for material investigation
		10.3.3 Electrochemical operation
		10.3.4 Metal ions sensing
		10.3.5 Small molecule sensing
		10.3.6 Protein detection
		10.3.7 DNA/RNA detection
	10.4 Conclusions and key challenges to address
	10.5 Future signs
	References
11 Recent advancements of carbon dots in analytical techniques
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Carbon dot–assisted enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
	11.3 Carbon dot–assisted surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy
	11.4 Carbon dot–assisted paper-based analytical devices
		11.4.1 Carbon dot-based paper chips
		11.4.2 Carbon dot–based microfluidic paper chips
	11.5 Carbon dots in chemiluminescence
		11.5.1 Nanoparticle-based chemiluminescence
		11.5.2 Carbon dots in chemiluminescence
	11.6 Carbon dots for pH-responsive fluorescence sensors
	11.7 Carbon dot–based nanothermometers to sense temperature
	11.8 Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry
		11.8.1 Carbon dot-assisted matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry for small molecules
	11.9 Summary and future perspectives
	References
12 Carbon dots in hydrogels and their applications
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Preparation of carbon dots composite hydrogel
	12.3 Properties of carbon dots composite hydrogel
	12.4 Emerging applications of carbon dots composite hydrogel
	12.5 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
13 Carbon dots as adsorbents for removal of toxic chemicals
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Synthesis methods of carbon dots
	13.3 Purification methods of carbon dots
	13.4 Characterization techniques for identification of carbon dots and implication of them for various applications
	13.5 Applications of carbon dots
		13.5.1 General applications
		13.5.2 Carbon dots as adsorbents for toxic chemicals removal
			13.5.2.1 Basics of adsorption
			13.5.2.2 Recent developments of carbon dots as adsorbent for pollutants removal
			13.5.2.3 Adsorption mechanism of carbon dots for pollutants removal
				13.5.2.3.1 Organic pollutant adsorptive removal mechanism of carbon dots
				13.5.2.3.2 Inorganic pollutant adsorptive removal mechanism of carbon dots
	13.6 Conclusion and future perspective
	Acknowledgments
	References
14 Heteroatom/metal ion-doped carbon dots for sensing applications
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Synthesis of heteroatom-doped carbon dots
	14.3 Dopant
	14.4 Single atom doping
		14.4.1 Heteroatom/nonmetal doping
			14.4.1.1 N-doped carbon dots
			14.4.1.2 S-doped carbon dots
			14.4.1.3 P-doped carbon dots
			14.4.1.4 B-doped carbon dots
			14.4.1.5 Halogen-doped carbon dots
		14.4.2 Metal atom doping
	14.5 Multiatom co-doping
		14.5.1 Heteroatom/nonmetal co-doping
			14.5.1.1 N-S co-doping
			14.5.1.2 N-P co-doping
			14.5.1.3 N-B co-doping
		14.5.2 Heteroatom-metal co-doping
		14.5.3 Metal–metal co-doping
	14.6 Properties of heteroatom-doped carbon dots
		14.6.1 Optical properties
		14.6.2 Electrochemical properties
	14.7 Heteroatom-doped carbon dots as sensors
		14.7.1 Fluorescent sensors
			14.7.1.1 Cations
			14.7.1.2 Anions
			14.7.1.3 Biological and organic molecules
			14.7.1.4 pH
			14.7.1.5 Temperature
		14.7.2 Electrochemical sensors
			14.7.2.1 Cations
			14.7.2.2 Biological and organic molecules
	14.8 Conclusion and future challenges
	References
15 Analytical applications of carbon dots in forensics, security, and other related fields
	15.1 Forensic science
	15.2 Techniques involved in forensic analysis
	15.3 Nanoforensics
		15.3.1 Carbon quantum dots
		15.3.2 Structural design of carbon quantum dots
	15.4 Carbon quantum dots: forensic applications
		15.4.1 Latent fingerprint enhancement
		15.4.2 Anticounterfeit
		15.4.3 Molecular sensing
			15.4.3.1 Detection of illicit drugs
			15.4.3.2 Detection of DNA
			15.4.3.3 Detection of explosive compounds
			15.4.3.4 Detection of toxic chemicals
	15.5 Challenges on the carbon dot-based analytical methods for forensic analysis
		15.5.1 Heavy metal ion detection method
		15.5.2 Fingerprint detection method
		15.5.3 Carbon dot-based material for anticounterfeit identification
	15.6 Conclusion
	References
16 Carbon dots as smart optical sensors
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Fluorescence-based sensing of trace amount of water
	16.3 Carbon dots with red emission for dual sensing of In3+ and Pd2+ in water
	16.4 Fluorescent carbon nanoparticles for sensing synthetic food colorant
	16.5 Concluding remarks
	References
17 Synthesis of carbon dots from waste materials: analytical applications
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Materials and methodologies
		17.2.1 Synthesis of CDs
			17.2.1.1 From kitchen and food wastes
		17.2.2 Pyrolysis
		17.2.3 Microwave-assisted technique
		17.2.4 Hydrothermal method
			17.2.4.1 From animal wastes
			17.2.4.2 From agricultural wastes
			17.2.4.3 From plastic wastes
			17.2.4.4 From paper wastes
	17.3 Characterization
		17.3.1 Optical characterization
		17.3.2 IR, Raman, XPS, and XRD spectroscopy
		17.3.3 Morphology of CDs
	17.4 Applications
		17.4.1 CDs in drug delivery
		17.4.2 CDs as sensing and tracing probes
		17.4.3 CDs as anticancer agents
		17.4.4 CDs in quenching
		17.4.5 CDs in detection
		17.4.6 CDs in photocatalysis
		17.4.7 CDs in anticounterfeiting ink and film
	17.5 Conclusion
	References
18 Carbon dots as an effective material in enzyme immobilization for sensing applications
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Methods of enzyme immobilization
	18.3 Enzyme–carbon dots physiochemical mechanisms: a synergistic effect
	18.4 CDs-based enzymatic biosensors
		18.4.1 Electrochemical biosensor
		18.4.2 Optical biosensor
	18.5 Advantages of enzyme immobilization
		18.5.1 Enzyme stabilization
		18.5.2 Enzyme recovery and reusability
		18.5.3 Bioreactor flexibility
	18.6 Enzyme immobilized carbon dots for sensing applications
		18.6.1 Preparation and characterization of N/CQD/chitosan/GOx
		18.6.2 Preparation and characterization of F, N/CQD/laccase
	18.7 Current challenges
	18.8 Conclusion
	Acknowledgement
	References
19 Ultra-small carbon dots for sensing and imaging of chemical species
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Ultra-small CDs for sensing chemical species
		19.2.1 Ultra-small CDs for sensing ionic species
		19.2.2 Ultra-small CDs for sensing nonionic molecules
	19.3 Ultra-small CDs: functionalization and imaging applications
		19.3.1 Ultra-small CDs functionalization for imaging applications
			19.3.1.1 Ultra-small CDs for bioimaging applications
	References
20 Carbon dot-based microscopic techniques for cell imaging
	20.1 Fluorescence microscopic techniques for carbon dot–based cell imaging
	20.2 Carbon dots as fluorescent nanoprobes for cell imaging
	20.3 Carbon dots as smart nanoprobes for diverse targeted cell imaging
	20.4 Conclusions
	References
21 Carbon nanomaterials-based diagnostic tools
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 Carbon nanotubes
		21.2.1 CNTs in lab on chip devices
		21.2.2 CNTs in bioimaging
		21.2.3 CNTs in point-of-care diagnostics
		21.2.4 CNTs in biosensing
	21.3 Carbon dots
		21.3.1 CDs in LOC devices
		21.3.2 CDs in bioimaging
		21.3.3 CDs in point-of-care diagnostics
		21.3.4 CDs in biosensing
	21.4 Other carbon-based nanomaterials
		21.4.1 Other carbon-based nanomaterials for LOC devices
		21.4.2 Other carbon-based nanomaterials for bioimaging
		21.4.3 Other carbon-based nanomaterials for point-of-care diagnostics
		21.4.4 Other carbon-based nanomaterials for biosensing
	21.5 Conclusion and future perspective
	References
22 Carbon dots in food analysis
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 Analytical applications of carbon dots in food matrix
		22.2.1 Detection of pesticides in food
		22.2.2 Detection of veterinary drug
		22.2.3 Detection of metal ion in food samples
		22.2.4 Detection of hazards in food processing
	22.3 Summary and trends
	References
23 Multicolor carbon dots for imaging applications
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 Bioimaging
	23.3 Quantum yield
	23.4 Bioimaging agents for in vivo and in vitro imaging
	23.5 Bioimaging applications
	23.6 Conclusion and futuristic roadmap
	Acknowledgment
	Conflict of interest
	References
24 Synthesis and applications of carbon dots from waste biomass
	24.1 Introduction
	24.2 C-dot synthesis from waste biomass
	24.3 Methods for the synthesis of C-dots from biomass waste
		24.3.1 Pyrolysis
		24.3.2 Solvothermal method
		24.3.3 Ultrasonic-assisted method
		24.3.4 Microwave-assisted method
		24.3.5 Hydrothermal carbonization
		24.3.6 Other synthesis methods
	24.4 Properties of C-dots derived from biomass waste
		24.4.1 Structural property
		24.4.2 Optical property
		24.4.3 Fluorescence property
		24.4.4 Upconversion fluorescence property
		24.4.5 Cytotoxicity and biocompatibility
		24.4.6 Catalytic activity
	24.5 Factors affecting properties of C-dots
		24.5.1 Thermal impact of raw materials
		24.5.2 Effect of synthesis temperature
		24.5.3 Effect of reaction time
		24.5.4 Effect of pH
	24.6 Biosynthesis of CDs from waste biomass
		24.6.1 Application in photocatalytic activity
		24.6.2 Biodegradable green C-dots used to detect silver
		24.6.3 Application in sensing process
		24.6.4 Application in solar cells
		24.6.5 Application in drug delivery
		24.6.6 Application in sensing of pollutant and toxic chemicals in food
	24.7 Conclusions and future outlook
	References
25 White light generation and fabrication of warm light-emitting diodes using carbon nanodots and their composites: a brief...
	25.1 Introduction
	25.2 White light generation and warm white light-emitting diodes
	25.3 Designing white light-emitting diodes with carbon nanodots and their composites
	25.4 Applications of white light-emitting diodes in analytical/ biomedical sciences
	25.5 Challenges in white light-emitting diode–based carbon nanodots
	25.6 Conclusion
	Acknowledgement
	References
26 Catalytic applications of carbon dots
	26.1 Introduction
	26.2 Carbon dot photocatalysts
	26.3 Catalytic applications
		26.3.1 Photocatalysis in water treatment
		26.3.2 Electrocatalysis
		26.3.3 Industrial catalysis for fine chemical synthesis
		26.3.4 Water splitting and hydrogen evolution
		26.3.5 Peroxidase-like catalysis
	26.4 Summary and future prospects
	References
Index
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