Campbell Biology: Concepts & Connections

CAMPBELL BIOLOGY: Concepts & Connections......Page 1
Title Page......Page 3
Copyright......Page 4
About the Authors......Page 5
Preface......Page 16
New Content......Page 19
Acknowledgments......Page 21
Reviewers......Page 22
Detailed Contents......Page 25
CHAPTER 1: Biology: Exploring Life......Page 40
  1.1 All forms of life share common properties......Page 42
  1.2 In life’s hierarchy of organization, new properties emerge at each level......Page 43
  1.3 Cells are the structural and functional units of life......Page 44
  1.4 Organisms interact with their environment, exchanging matter and energy......Page 45
  1.6 The diversity of life can be arranged into three domains......Page 46
  1.7 Evolution explains the unity and diversity of life......Page 48
  1.8 In studying nature, scientists make observations and form and test hypotheses......Page 50
  SCIENTIFIC THINKING: 1.9 Hypotheses can be tested using controlled field studies......Page 51
  CONNECTION: 1.11 Biology, technology, and society are connected in important ways......Page 52
 CHAPTER 1 REVIEW......Page 53
UNIT I: The Life of the Cell......Page 55
 CHAPTER 2: The Chemical Basis of Life......Page 56
   2.1 Organisms are composed of elements, in combinations called compounds......Page 58
   CONNECTION: 2.2 Trace elements are common additives to food and water......Page 59
   2.3 Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons......Page 60
   CONNECTION: 2.4 Radioactive isotopes can help or harm us......Page 61
   2.5 The distribution of electrons determines an atom’s chemical properties......Page 62
   2.6 Covalent bonds join atoms into molecules through electron sharing......Page 63
   2.8 Hydrogen bonds are weak bonds important in the chemistry of life......Page 64
   2.9 Chemical reactions make and break chemical bonds......Page 65
   2.11 Water’s hydrogen bonds moderate temperature......Page 66
   2.13 Water is the solvent of life......Page 67
   SCIENTIFIC THINKING: 2.15 Scientists study the effects of rising atmospheric CO₂ on coral reef ecosystems......Page 68
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 2.16 The search for extraterrestrial life centers on the search for water......Page 69
  CHAPTER 2 REVIEW......Page 70
 CHAPTER 3: The Molecules of Cells......Page 72
   3.1 Life’s molecular diversity is based on the properties of carbon......Page 74
   3.2 A few chemical groups are key to the functioning of biological molecules......Page 75
   3.3 Cells make large molecules from a limited set of small molecules......Page 76
   3.4 Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates......Page 77
   CONNECTION: 3.6 What is high-fructose corn syrup, and is it to blame for obesity?......Page 78
   3.7 Polysaccharides are long chains of sugar units......Page 79
   3.8 Fats are lipids that are mostly energy-storage molecules......Page 80
   SCIENTIFIC THINKING: 3.9 Scientific studies document the health risks of trans fats......Page 81
   CONNECTION: 3.11 Anabolic steroids pose health risks......Page 82
   3.12 Proteins have a wide range of functions and structures......Page 83
   3.13 Proteins are made from amino acids linked by peptide bonds......Page 84
   VISUALIZING THE CONCEPT: A protein’s functional shape results from four levels of structure......Page 85
   3.16 Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides......Page 86
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 3.17 Lactose tolerance is a recent event in human evolution......Page 87
  CHAPTER 3 REVIEW......Page 88
 CHAPTER 4: A Tour of the Cell......Page 90
   4.1 Microscopes reveal the world of the cell......Page 92
   4.2 The small size of cells relates to the need to exchange materials across the plasma membrane......Page 94
   4.3 Prokaryotic cells are structurally simpler than eukaryotic cells......Page 95
   4.4 Eukaryotic cells are partitioned into functional compartments......Page 96
   4.5 The nucleus contains the cell’s genetic instructions......Page 98
   4.7 Many organelles are connected in the endomembrane system......Page 99
   4.8 The endoplasmic reticulum is a biosynthetic workshop......Page 100
   4.9 The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and ships cell products......Page 101
   4.11 Vacuoles function in the general maintenance of the cell......Page 102
   4.13 Mitochondria harvest chemical energy from food......Page 103
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 4.15 Mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved by endosymbiosis......Page 104
   4.16 The cell’s internal skeleton helps organize its structure and activities......Page 105
   4.18 Cilia and flagella move when microtubules bend......Page 106
   4.19 The extracellular matrix of animal cells functions in support and regulation......Page 107
   4.21 Cell walls enclose and support plant cells......Page 108
   4.22 Review: Eukaryotic cell structures can be grouped on the basis of four main functions......Page 109
  CHAPTER 4 REVIEW......Page 110
 CHAPTER 5: The Working Cell......Page 112
   VISUALIZING THE CONCEPTS: 5.1 Membranes are fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins with many functions......Page 114
   5.3 Passive transport is diffusion across a membrane with no energy investment......Page 115
   5.5 Water balance between cells and their surroundings is crucial to organisms......Page 116
   5.6 Transport proteins can facilitate diffusion across membranes......Page 117
   5.8 Cells expend energy in the active transport of a solute......Page 118
   5.9 Exocytosis and endocytosis transport large molecules across membranes......Page 119
   5.10 Cells transform energy as they perform work......Page 120
   5.11 Chemical reactions either release or store energy......Page 121
   5.12 ATP drives cellular work by coupling exergonic and endergonic reactions......Page 122
   5.13 Enzymes speed up the cell’s chemical reactions by lowering energy barriers......Page 123
   5.14 A specific enzyme catalyzes each cellular reaction......Page 124
   CONNECTION: 5.16 Many drugs, pesticides, and poisons are enzyme inhibitors......Page 125
  CHAPTER 5 REVIEW......Page 126
 CHAPTER 6: How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy......Page 128
   6.2 Breathing supplies O2 for use in cellular respiration and removes CO2......Page 130
   CONNECTION: 6.4 The human body uses energy from ATP for all its activities......Page 131
   6.5 Cells capture energy from electrons “falling” from organic fuels to oxygen......Page 132
   6.6 Overview: Cellular respiration occurs in three main stages......Page 133
   6.7 Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate......Page 134
   6.9 The citric acid cycle completes the oxidation of organic molecules, generating many NADH and FADH2 molecules......Page 136
   6.10 Most ATP production occurs by oxidative phosphorylation......Page 138
   SCIENTIFIC THINKING: 6.11 Scientists have discovered heat-producing, calorie-burning brown fat in adults......Page 139
   6.13 Fermentation enables cells to produce ATP without oxygen......Page 140
   6.15 Cells use many kinds of organic molecules as fuel for cellular respiration......Page 142
   6.16 Organic molecules from food provide raw materials for biosynthesis......Page 143
  CHAPTER 6 REVIEW......Page 144
 CHAPTER 7: Photosynthesis: Using Light to Make Food......Page 146
   7.1 Photosynthesis fuels the biosphere......Page 148
   7.2 Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts in plant cells......Page 149
   7.4 Photosynthesis is a redox process, as is cellular respiration......Page 150
   7.5 The two stages of photosynthesis are linked by ATP and NADPH......Page 151
   7.6 Visible radiation absorbed by pigments drives the light reactions......Page 152
   7.7 Photosystems capture solar energy......Page 153
   7.8 Two photosystems connected by an electron transport chain generate ATP and NADPH......Page 154
   VISUALIZING THE CONCEPT: 7.9 The light reactions take place within the thylakoid membranes......Page 155
   7.10 ATP and NADPH power sugar synthesis in the Calvin cycle......Page 156
   7.11 Other methods of carbon fixation have evolved in hot, dry climates......Page 157
   7.12 Photosynthesis makes sugar from CO2 and H2O, providing food and O2 for almost all living organisms......Page 158
   SCIENTIFIC THINKING: 7.13 Rising atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide and global climate change will affect plants in various ways......Page 159
   7.14 Scientific research and international treaties have helped slow the depletion of Earth’s ozone layer......Page 160
  CHAPTER 7 REVIEW......Page 161
UNIT II: Cellular Reproduction and Genetics......Page 163
 CHAPTER 8: The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance......Page 164
   8.1 Cell division plays many important roles in the lives of organisms......Page 166
   8.2 Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission......Page 167
   8.3 The large, complex chromosomes of eukaryotes duplicate with each cell division......Page 168
   8.4 The cell cycle includes growing and division phases......Page 169
   8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic changes......Page 170
   8.6 Cytokinesis differs for plant and animal cells......Page 172
   8.7 Anchorage, cell density, and chemical growth factors affect cell division......Page 173
   8.8 Growth factors signal the cell cycle control system......Page 174
   CONNECTION: 8.9 Growing out of control, cancer cells produce malignant tumors......Page 175
   8.11 Chromosomes are matched in homologous pairs......Page 176
   8.12 Gametes have a single set of chromosomes......Page 177
   8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid......Page 178
   VISUALIZING THE CONCEPT: 8.14 Mitosis and meiosis have important similarities and differences......Page 180
   8.15 Independent orientation of chromosomes in meiosis and random fertilization lead to varied offspring......Page 181
   8.17 Crossing over further increases genetic variability......Page 182
   8.18 Accidents during meiosis can alter chromosome number......Page 184
   8.19 A karyotype is a photographic inventory of an individual’s chromosomes......Page 185
   CONNECTION: 8.20 An extra copy of chromosome 21 causes Down syndrome......Page 186
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 8.22 New species can arise from errors in cell division......Page 187
   CONNECTION: 8.23 Alterations of chromosome structure can cause birth defects and cancer......Page 188
  CHAPTER 8 REVIEW......Page 189
 CHAPTER 9: Patterns of Inheritance......Page 192
   9.2 The science of genetics began in an abbey garden......Page 194
   9.3 Mendel’s law of segregation describes the inheritance of a single character......Page 196
   9.4 Homologous chromosomes bear the alleles for each character......Page 197
   9.5 The law of independent assortment is revealed by tracking two characters at once......Page 198
   9.6 Geneticists can use a testcross to determine unknown genotypes......Page 199
   9.7 Mendel’s laws reflect the rules of probability......Page 200
   VISUALIZING THE CONCEPT: 9.8 Genetic traits in humans can be tracked through family pedigrees......Page 201
   CONNECTION: 9.9 Many inherited traits in humans are controlled by a single gene......Page 202
   CONNECTION: 9.10 New technologies can provide insight into one’s genetic legacy......Page 204
   9.11 Incomplete dominance results in intermediate phenotypes......Page 206
   9.12 Many genes have more than two alleles in the population......Page 207
   9.13 A single gene may affect many phenotypic characters......Page 208
   9.14 A single character may be influenced by many genes......Page 209
   9.16 Chromosome behavior accounts for Mendel’s laws......Page 210
   9.18 Crossing over produces new combinations of alleles......Page 212
   9.20 Chromosomes determine sex in many species......Page 214
   9.21 Sex-linked genes exhibit a unique pattern of inheritance......Page 216
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 9.23 The Y chromosome provides clues about human male evolution......Page 217
  CHAPTER 9 REVIEW......Page 218
 CHAPTER 10: Molecular Biology of the Gene......Page 220
   SCIENTIFIC THINKING: 10.1 Experiments showed that DNA is the genetic material......Page 222
   10.2 DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides......Page 224
   10.3 DNA is a double-stranded helix......Page 226
   10.5 DNA replication proceeds in two directions at many sites simultaneously......Page 228
   10.6 Genes control phenotypic traits through the expression of proteins......Page 230
   10.7 Genetic information written in codons is translated into amino acid sequences......Page 231
   10.8 The genetic code dictates how codons are translated into amino acids......Page 232
   VISUALIZING THE CONCEPT: 10.9 Transcription produces genetic messages in the form of RNA......Page 233
   10.11 Transfer RNA molecules serve as interpreters during translation......Page 234
   10.13 An initiation codon marks the start of an mRNA message......Page 236
   10.14 Elongation adds amino acids to the polypeptide chain until a stop codon terminates translation......Page 237
   10.15 Review: The flow of genetic information in the cell is DNA→RNA→protein......Page 238
   10.16 Mutations can affect genes......Page 239
   10.17 Viral DNA may become part of the host chromosome......Page 240
   CONNECTION: 10.18 Many viruses cause disease in animals and plants......Page 241
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 10.19 Emerging viruses threaten human health......Page 242
   10.21 Viroids and prions are formidable pathogens in plants and animals......Page 243
   10.22 Bacteria can transfer DNA in three ways......Page 244
   10.23 Bacterial plasmids can serve as carriers for gene transfer......Page 245
  CHAPTER 10 REVIEW......Page 246
 CHAPTER 11: How Genes Are Controlled......Page 248
   11.1 Proteins interacting with DNA turn prokaryotic genes on or off in response to environmental changes......Page 250
   11.2 Chromosome structure and chemical modifications can affect gene expression......Page 252
   11.4 Eukaryotic RNA may be spliced in more than one way......Page 254
   11.5 Small RNAs play multiple roles in controlling gene expression......Page 255
   11.6 Later stages of gene expression are also subject to regulation......Page 256
   VISUALIZING THE CONCEPT: 11.7 Multiple mechanisms regulate gene expression in eukaryotes......Page 257
   11.8 Cell signaling and waves of gene expression direct animal development......Page 258
   CONNECTION: 11.9 Scientists use DNA microarrays to test for the transcription of many genes at once......Page 259
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION:  11.11 Cell-signaling systems appeared early in the evolution of life......Page 260
   11.12 Plant cloning shows that differentiated cells may retain all of their genetic potential......Page 261
   SCIENTIFIC THINKING: 11.13 Biologists can clone animals via nuclear transplantation......Page 262
   CONNECTION: 11.14 Therapeutic cloning can produce stem cells with great medical potential......Page 263
   11.15 Cancer results from mutations in genes that control cell division......Page 264
   11.16 Multiple genetic changes underlie the development of cancer......Page 265
   11.17 Faulty proteins can interfere with normal signal transduction pathways......Page 266
   CONNECTION: 11.18 Lifestyle choices can reduce the risk of cancer......Page 267
  CHAPTER 11 REVIEW......Page 268
 CHAPTER 12: DNA Technology and Genomics......Page 270
   12.1 Genes can be cloned in recombinant plasmids......Page 272
   VISUALIZING THE CONCEPT: 12.2 Enzymes are used to “cut and paste” DNA......Page 274
   12.4 Reverse transcriptase can help make genes for cloning......Page 275
   12.6 Nucleic acid probes identify clones carrying specific genes......Page 276
   CONNECTION: 12.7 DNA technology has changed the pharmaceutical industry and medicine......Page 278
   CONNECTION: 12.8 Genetically modified organisms are transforming agriculture......Page 279
   SCIENTIFIC THINKING: 12.9 Genetically modified organisms raise health concerns......Page 280
   CONNECTION: 12.10 Gene therapy may someday help treat a variety of diseases......Page 281
   12.12 The PCR method is used to amplify DNA sequences......Page 282
   12.13 Gel electrophoresis sorts DNA molecules by size......Page 283
   12.14 Short tandem repeat analysis is commonly used for DNA profiling......Page 284
   CONNECTION: 12.15 DNA profiling has provided evidence in many forensic investigations......Page 285
   12.16 RFLPs can be used to detect differences in DNA sequences......Page 286
   12.17 Genomics is the scientific study of whole genomes......Page 287
   CONNECTION: 12.18 The Human Genome Project revealed that most of the human genome does not consist of genes......Page 288
   12.20 Proteomics is the scientific study of the full set of proteins encoded by a genome......Page 289
  CHAPTER 12 REVIEW......Page 290
UNIT III: Concepts of Evolution......Page 293
 CHAPTER 13: How Populations Evolve......Page 294
   13.1 A sea voyage helped Darwin frame his theory of evolution......Page 296
   13.2 The study of fossils provides strong evidence for evolution......Page 298
   SCIENTIFIC THINKING: 13.3 Fossils of transitional forms support Darwin’s theory of evolution......Page 299
   13.4 Homologies provide strong evidence for evolution......Page 300
   13.5 Homologies indicate patterns of descent that can be shown on an evolutionary tree......Page 301
   13.6 Darwin proposed natural selection as the mechanism of evolution......Page 302
   13.7 Scientists can observe natural selection in action......Page 303
   13.8 Mutation and sexual reproduction produce the genetic variation that makes evolution possible......Page 304
   13.9 Evolution occurs within populations......Page 305
   13.10 The Hardy-Weinberg equation can test whether a population is evolving......Page 306
   CONNECTION: 13.11 The Hardy-Weinberg equation is useful in public health science......Page 307
   13.12 Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow can cause microevolution......Page 308
   13.13 Natural selection is the only mechanism that consistently leads to adaptive evolution......Page 309
   13.14 Natural selection can alter variation in a population in three ways......Page 310
   13.15 Sexual selection may lead to phenotypic differences between males and females......Page 311
   13.17 Diploidy and balancing selection preserve genetic variation......Page 312
   13.18 Natural selection cannot fashion perfect organisms......Page 313
  CHAPTER 13 REVIEW......Page 314
 CHAPTER 14: The Origin of Species......Page 316
   14.2 There are several ways to define a species......Page 318
   VISUALIZING THE CONCEPT: 14.3 Reproductive barriers keep species separate......Page 320
   14.4 In allopatric speciation, geographic isolation leads to speciation......Page 322
   14.5 Reproductive barriers can evolve as populations diverge......Page 323
   14.6 Sympatric speciation takes place without geographic isolation......Page 324
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 14.7 The origin of most plant species can be traced to polyploid speciation......Page 325
   14.8 Isolated islands are often showcases of speciation......Page 326
   SCIENTIFIC THINKING: 14.9 Lake Victoria is a living laboratory for studying speciation......Page 327
   14.10 Hybrid zones provide opportunities to study reproductive isolation......Page 328
   14.11 Speciation can occur rapidly or slowly......Page 329
  CHAPTER 14 REVIEW......Page 330
 CHAPTER 15: Tracing Evolutionary History......Page 332
   15.1 Conditions on early Earth made the origin of life possible......Page 334
   SCIENTIFIC THINKING: 15.2 Experiments show that the abiotic synthesis of organic molecules is possible......Page 335
   15.3 Stages in the origin of the first cells probably included the formation of polymers, protocells, and self-replicating RNA......Page 336
   15.4 The origins of single-celled and multicellular organisms and the colonization of land were key events in life’s history......Page 337
   15.6 The fossil record documents the history of life......Page 338
   15.7 Continental drift has played a major role in macroevolution......Page 340
   15.9 During mass extinctions, large numbers of species are lost......Page 342
   15.11 Genes that control development play a major role in evolution......Page 344
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 15.12 Novel traits may arise in several ways......Page 346
   15.13 Evolutionary trends do not mean that evolution is goal directed......Page 347
   15.15 Systematics connects classification with evolutionary history......Page 348
   15.16 Shared characters are used to construct phylogenetic trees......Page 350
   15.17 An organism’s evolutionary history is documented in its genome......Page 352
   15.18 Molecular clocks help track evolutionary time......Page 353
   15.19 Constructing the tree of life is a work in progress......Page 354
  CHAPTER 15 REVIEW......Page 355
UNIT IV: The Evolution of Biological Diversity......Page 357
 CHAPTER 16: Microbial Life: Prokaryotes and Protists......Page 358
   16.2 External features contribute to the success of prokaryotes......Page 360
   16.3 Populations of prokaryotes can adapt rapidly to changes in the environment......Page 362
   16.4 Prokaryotes have unparalleled nutritional diversity......Page 363
   CONNECTION: 16.6 Biofilms are complex associations of microbes......Page 364
   16.7 Bacteria and archaea are the two main branches of prokaryotic evolution......Page 365
   16.9 Bacteria include a diverse assemblage of prokaryotes......Page 366
   16.11 Stomach microbiota affect health and disease......Page 368
   16.12 Protists are an extremely diverse assortment of eukaryotes......Page 370
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 16.13 Endosymbiosis of unicellular algae is the key to much of protist diversity......Page 371
   16.14 The “SAR” supergroup represents the range of protist diversity......Page 372
   16.16 Some excavates have modified mitochondria......Page 374
   16.17 Unikonts include protists that are closely related to fungi and animals......Page 375
   16.18 Archaeplastids include red algae, green algae, and land plants......Page 376
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 16.19 Multicellularity evolved several times in eukaryotes......Page 377
  CHAPTER 16 REVIEW......Page 378
 CHAPTER 17: The Evolution of Plant and Fungal Diversity......Page 380
   17.1 Plants have adaptations for life on land......Page 382
   17.2 Plant diversity reflects the evolutionary history of the plant kingdom......Page 384
  Alternation of Generations and Plant Life Cycles......Page 386
   17.5 Pollen and seeds are key adaptations for life on land......Page 388
   17.7 The angiosperm plant is a sporophyte with gametophytes in its flowers......Page 390
   CONNECTION: 17.9 Angiosperms sustain us—and add spice to our diets......Page 392
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION:  17.10 Pollination by animals has influenced angiosperm evolution......Page 393
   CONNECTION: 17.11 Plant diversity is vital to the future of the world’s food supply......Page 394
   17.12 Fungi absorb food after digesting it outside their bodies......Page 395
   17.14 Fungi are classified into five groups......Page 396
   CONNECTION: 17.16 Fungi have many practical uses......Page 398
   17.17 Lichens are symbiotic associations of fungi and photosynthetic organisms......Page 399
   17.18 Mycorrhizae may have helped plants colonize land......Page 400
   CONNECTION: 17.19 Parasitic fungi harm plants and animals......Page 401
  CHAPTER 17 REVIEW......Page 402
 CHAPTER 18: The Evolution of Invertebrate Diversity......Page 404
   18.1 What is an animal?......Page 406
   18.2 Animal diversification began more than half a billion years ago......Page 407
   VISUALIZING THE CONCEPT: 18.3 Animals can be characterized by basic features of their “body plan”......Page 408
   18.4 Body plans and molecular comparisons of animals can be used to build phylogenetic trees......Page 409
   18.5 Sponges have a relatively simple, porous body......Page 410
   18.6 Cnidarians are radial animals with tentacles and stinging cells......Page 411
   18.7 Flatworms are the simplest bilateral animals......Page 412
   18.8 Nematodes have a body cavity and a complete digestive tract......Page 413
   18.9 Diverse molluscs are variations on a common body plan......Page 414
   18.10 Annelids are segmented worms......Page 416
   18.11 Arthropods are segmented animals with jointed appendages and an exoskeleton......Page 418
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 18.12 Insects are the most successful group of animals......Page 420
   SCIENTIFIC THINKING: 18.13 The genes that build animal bodies are ancient......Page 422
   18.14 Echinoderms have spiny skin, an endoskeleton, and a water vascular system for movement......Page 423
   18.15 Our own phylum, Chordata, is distinguished by four features......Page 424
   CONNECTION: 18.16 Invertebrate diversity is a valuable but threatened resource......Page 425
  CHAPTER 18 REVIEW......Page 426
 CHAPTER 19: The Evolution of Vertebrate Diversity......Page 428
   19.1 Derived characters define the major clades of chordates......Page 430
   19.2 Hagfishes and lampreys lack hinged jaws......Page 431
   19.3 Jawed vertebrates with gills and paired fins include sharks, ray-finned fishes, and lobe-finned fishes......Page 432
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 19.4 New fossil discoveries are filling in the gaps of tetrapod evolution......Page 434
   19.5 Amphibians are tetrapods—vertebrates with two pairs of limbs......Page 436
   19.6 Reptiles are amniotes—tetrapods with a terrestrially adapted egg......Page 437
   19.7 Birds are feathered reptiles with adaptations for flight......Page 438
   19.8 Mammals are amniotes that have hair and produce milk......Page 439
   VISUALIZING THE CONCEPT: 19.9 Primates include lemurs, tarsiers, monkeys, and apes......Page 440
   19.10 The human story begins with our primate heritage......Page 442
   19.11 The hominin branch of the primate tree includes species that coexisted......Page 443
   19.12 Australopiths were bipedal and had small brains......Page 444
   19.13 Larger brains mark the evolution of Homo......Page 445
   SCIENTIFIC THINKING: 19.15 New discoveries raise new questions about the history of hominins......Page 446
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 19.16 Human skin color reflects adaptations to varying amounts of sunlight......Page 447
   CONNECTION: 19.17 Our knowledge of animal diversity is far from complete......Page 448
  CHAPTER 19 REVIEW......Page 449
UNIT V: Animals: Form and Function......Page 451
 CHAPTER 20: Unifying Concepts of Animal Structure and Function......Page 452
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 20.1 An animal’s form is not the perfect design......Page 454
   20.2 Structure fits function at all levels of organization in the animal body......Page 455
   20.4 Tissues are groups of cells with a common structure and function......Page 456
   20.5 Connective tissue binds and supports other tissues......Page 457
   20.7 Nervous tissue forms a communication network......Page 458
   CONNECTION: 20.9 Bioengineers are learning to produce organs for transplants......Page 459
   20.10 Organ systems work together to perform life’s functions......Page 460
   20.11 The integumentary system protects the body......Page 462
   SCIENTIFIC THINKING: 20.12 Well-designed studies help answer scientific questions......Page 463
   20.13 Structural adaptations enhance exchange with the environment......Page 464
   20.14 Animals regulate their internal environment......Page 465
  CHAPTER 20 REVIEW......Page 466
 CHAPTER 21: Nutrition and Digestion......Page 468
   21.1 Animals obtain and ingest their food in a variety of ways......Page 470
   21.2 Overview: Food processing occurs in four stages......Page 471
   21.3 Digestion occurs in specialized compartments......Page 472
   21.4 The human digestive system consists of an alimentary canal and accessory glands......Page 473
   21.6 After swallowing, peristalsis moves food through the esophagus to the stomach......Page 474
   CONNECTION: 21.7 The Heimlich maneuver can save lives......Page 475
   21.8 The stomach stores food and breaks it down with acid and enzymes......Page 476
   CONNECTION: 21.9 Digestive ailments include acid reflux and gastric ulcers......Page 477
   21.10 The small intestine is the major organ of chemical digestion and nutrient absorption......Page 478
   21.12 The large intestine reclaims water and compacts the feces......Page 480
   21.13 Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate digestive systems relate to diet......Page 481
   21.14 An animal’s diet must provide sufficient energy......Page 482
   21.15 An animal’s diet must supply essential nutrients......Page 483
   21.16 A proper human diet must include sufficient vitamins and minerals......Page 484
   CONNECTION: 21.18 Dietary deficiencies can have a number of causes......Page 486
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 21.19 The human health problem of obesity may reflect our evolutionary past......Page 487
   SCIENTIFIC THINKING: 21.20 Scientists use a variety of methods to test weight-loss claims......Page 488
   CONNECTION: 21.21 Diet can influence risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer......Page 489
  CHAPTER 21 REVIEW......Page 490
 CHAPTER 22: Gas Exchange......Page 492
   22.2 Animals exchange O2 and CO2 across moist body surfaces......Page 494
   VISUALIZING THE CONCEPT: 22.3 Gills are adapted for gas exchange in aquatic environments......Page 496
   22.4 The tracheal system of insects provides direct exchange between the air and body cells......Page 497
   22.6 In mammals, branching tubes convey air to lungs located in the chest cavity......Page 498
   22.8 Negative pressure breathing ventilates your lungs......Page 500
   22.9 Breathing is automatically controlled......Page 501
   22.11 Hemoglobin carries O2, helps transport CO2, and buffers the blood......Page 502
   CONNECTION: 22.12 The human fetus exchanges gases with the mother’s blood......Page 503
  CHAPTER 22 REVIEW......Page 504
 CHAPTER 23: Circulation......Page 506
   23.1 Circulatory systems facilitate exchange with all body tissues......Page 508
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 23.2 Vertebrate cardiovascular systems reflect evolution......Page 509
  The Human Cardiovascular System and Heart......Page 510
   23.4 The heart contracts and relaxes rhythmically......Page 511
   23.5 The SA node sets the tempo of the heartbeat......Page 512
   SCIENTIFIC THINKING: 23.6 What causes heart attacks?......Page 513
   23.7 The structure of blood vessels fits their functions......Page 514
   23.8 Blood pressure and velocity reflect the structure and arrangement of blood vessels......Page 515
   CONNECTION: 23.9 Measuring blood pressure can reveal cardiovascular problems......Page 516
   23.10 Smooth muscle controls the distribution of blood......Page 517
   23.11 Capillaries allow the transfer of substances through their walls......Page 518
   23.12 Blood consists of red and white blood cells suspended in plasma......Page 519
   CONNECTION: 23.14 Blood clots plug leaks when blood vessels are injured......Page 520
   CONNECTION: 23.15 Stem cells offer a potential cure for blood cell diseases......Page 521
  CHAPTER 23 REVIEW......Page 522
 CHAPTER 24: The Immune System......Page 524
   24.1 All animals have innate immunity......Page 526
   24.2 Inflammation mobilizes the innate immune response......Page 527
   24.3 The adaptive immune response counters specific invaders......Page 528
   24.4 The lymphatic system becomes a crucial battleground during infection......Page 529
   24.5 Lymphocytes mount a dual defense......Page 530
   24.6 Antigen receptors and antibodies bind to specific regions on an antigen......Page 531
   VISUALIZING THE CONCEPT: 24.7 Clonal selection mobilizes defensive forces against specific antigens......Page 532
   24.8 The primary and secondary responses differ in speed, strength, and duration......Page 533
   24.9 The structure of an antibody matches its function......Page 534
   CONNECTION: 24.10 Antibodies are powerful tools in the lab and clinic......Page 535
   SCIENTIFIC THINKING: 24.11 Scientists measure antibody levels to look for waning immunity after HPV vaccination......Page 536
   24.12 Helper T cells stimulate the humoral and cell-mediated immune responses......Page 537
   CONNECTION: 24.14 HIV destroys helper T cells, compromising the body’s defenses......Page 538
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 24.15 The rapid evolution of HIV complicates AIDS treatment......Page 539
   CONNECTION: 24.17 Immune system disorders result from self-directed or underactive responses......Page 540
   CONNECTION: 24.18 Allergies are overreactions to certain environmental antigens......Page 541
 CHAPTER 25: Control of Body Temperature and Water Balance......Page 544
   25.2 Thermoregulation involves adaptations that balance heat gain and loss......Page 546
   SCIENTIFIC THINKING: 25.3 Coordinated waves of movement in huddles help penguins thermoregulate......Page 547
   25.4 Animals balance their levels of water and solutes through osmoregulation......Page 548
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 25.5 Several ways to dispose of nitrogenous wastes have evolved in animals......Page 549
   25.6 The urinary system plays several major roles in homeostasis......Page 550
   25.7 Reabsorption and secretion refine the filtrate......Page 552
   CONNECTION: 25.9 Kidney dialysis can save lives......Page 553
  CHAPTER 25 REVIEW......Page 554
 CHAPTER 26: Hormones and the Endocrine System......Page 556
   26.1 Chemical and electrical signals coordinate body functions......Page 558
   26.2 Hormones affect target cells using two main signaling mechanisms......Page 559
   26.4 The vertebrate endocrine system consists of more than a dozen major glands......Page 560
   26.5 The hypothalamus, which is closely tied to the pituitary, connects the nervous and endocrine systems......Page 562
   26.6 The thyroid regulates development and metabolism......Page 564
   26.7 The gonads secrete sex hormones......Page 565
   VISUALIZING THE CONCEPT: 26.8 Pancreatic hormones regulate blood glucose level......Page 566
   CONNECTION: 26.9 Diabetes is a common endocrine disorder......Page 567
   26.10 The adrenal glands mobilize responses to stress......Page 568
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 26.11 A single hormone can perform a variety of functions in different animals......Page 569
  CHAPTER 26 REVIEW......Page 570
 CHAPTER 27: Reproduction and Embryonic Development......Page 572
   27.2 Sexual reproduction results in the generation of genetically unique offspring......Page 574
   27.3 The human female reproductive system includes the ovaries and structures that deliver gametes......Page 576
   27.4 The human male reproductive system includes the testes and structures that deliver gametes......Page 578
   27.5 The formation of sperm and egg cells requires meiosis......Page 580
   27.6 Hormones synchronize cyclic changes in the ovary and uterus......Page 582
   SCIENTIFIC THINKING: 27.7 Sexual activity can transmit disease......Page 584
   CONNECTION: 27.8 Contraception can prevent unwanted pregnancy......Page 585
   27.9 Fertilization results in a zygote and triggers embryonic development......Page 586
   27.10 Cleavage produces a blastula from the zygote......Page 588
   27.11 Gastrulation produces a three-layered embryo......Page 589
   27.12 Organs start to form after gastrulation......Page 590
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 27.14 Pattern formation during embryonic development is controlled by ancient genes......Page 592
   27.15 The embryo and placenta take shape during the first month of pregnancy......Page 594
   VISUALIZING THE CONCEPT: 27.16 Human pregnancy is divided into trimesters......Page 596
   27.17 Childbirth is induced by hormones and other chemical signals......Page 598
   CONNECTION27.18 Reproductive technologies increase our reproductive options......Page 599
  CHAPTER 27 REVIEW......Page 600
 CHAPTER 28: Nervous Systems......Page 602
   28.1 Nervous systems receive sensory input, interpret it, and send out commands......Page 604
   28.2 Neurons are the functional units of nervous systems......Page 605
   28.4 A nerve signal begins as a change in the membrane potential......Page 606
   28.5 The action potential propagates itself along the axon......Page 608
   28.6 Neurons communicate at synapses......Page 609
   28.8 A variety of small molecules function as neurotransmitters......Page 610
   CONNECTION: 28.9 Many drugs act at chemical synapses......Page 611
   28.10 Published data are biased toward positive findings......Page 612
   28.11 The evolution of animal nervous systems reflects changes in body symmetry......Page 613
   28.12 Vertebrate nervous systems are highly centralized......Page 614
   28.13 The peripheral nervous system of vertebrates can be divided into functional components......Page 615
   28.15 The structure of a living supercomputer: The human brain......Page 616
   28.16 The cerebral cortex is a mosaic of specialized, interactive regions......Page 618
   CONNECTION: 28.17 Injuries and brain operations provide insight into brain function......Page 619
   28.19 The reticular formation is involved in arousal and sleep......Page 620
   28.20 The limbic system is involved in emotions and memory......Page 621
   28.21 Changes in brain physiology can produce neurological disorders......Page 622
  CHAPTER 28 REVIEW......Page 624
 CHAPTER 29: The Senses......Page 626
   29.1 Sensory receptors convert stimulus energy to action potentials......Page 628
   29.2 The model for magnetic sensory reception is incomplete......Page 629
   29.3 Specialized sensory receptors detect five categories of stimuli......Page 630
   29.4 The ear converts air pressure waves to action potentials that are perceived as sound......Page 632
   29.6 What causes motion sickness?......Page 634
   29.7 Several types of eyes have evolved among animals......Page 635
   29.8 Humans have single-lens eyes that focus by changing shape......Page 636
   CONNECTION: 29.9 Artificial lenses or surgery can correct focusing problems......Page 637
   29.10 The human retina contains two types of photoreceptors: rods and cones......Page 638
   29.12 “Supertasters” have a heightened sense of taste......Page 639
  CHAPTER 29 REVIEW......Page 640
 CHAPTER 30: How Animals Move......Page 642
   30.1 Locomotion requires energy to overcome friction and gravity......Page 644
   30.2 Skeletons function in support, movement, and protection......Page 646
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 30.3 Vertebrate skeletons are variations on an ancient theme......Page 648
   30.4 Bones are complex living organs......Page 649
   CONNECTION: 30.5 Healthy bones resist stress and heal from injuries......Page 650
   30.7 The skeleton and muscles interact in movement......Page 651
   30.9 A muscle contracts when thin filaments slide along thick filaments......Page 652
   30.10 Motor neurons stimulate muscle contraction......Page 654
   CONNECTION: 30.11 Aerobic respiration supplies most of the energy for exercise......Page 655
   SCIENTIFIC THINKING: 30.12 Characteristics of muscle fiber affect athletic performance......Page 656
  CHAPTER 30 REVIEW......Page 657
UNIT VI: Plants: Form and Function......Page 659
 CHAPTER 31: Plant Structure, Growth, and Reproduction......Page 660
   SCIENTIFIC THINKING: 31.1 The domestication of crops changed the course of human history......Page 662
   31.2 The two major groups of angiosperms are the monocots and the eudicots......Page 663
   31.3 A typical plant body contains three basic organs: roots, stems, and leaves......Page 664
   31.4 Many plants have modified roots, stems, and leaves......Page 665
   31.5 Three tissue systems make up the plant body......Page 666
   31.6 Plant cells are diverse in structure and function......Page 668
   31.7 Primary growth lengthens roots and shoots......Page 670
   31.8 Secondary growth increases the diameter of woody plants......Page 672
   31.9 The flower is the organ of sexual reproduction in angiosperms......Page 674
   31.10 The development of pollen and ovules culminates in fertilization......Page 675
   31.11 The ovule develops into a seed......Page 676
   31.12 The ovary develops into a fruit......Page 677
   31.14 Asexual reproduction produces plant clones......Page 678
  CHAPTER 31 REVIEW......Page 680
 CHAPTER 32: Plant Nutrition and Transport......Page 682
   32.1 Plants acquire nutrients from air, water, and soil......Page 684
   32.2 The plasma membranes of root cells control solute uptake......Page 685
   VISUALIZING THE CONCEPT: 32.3 Transpiration pulls water up xylem vessels......Page 686
   32.4 Guard cells control transpiration......Page 687
   32.5 Phloem transports sugars......Page 688
   32.6 Plant health depends on obtaining all of the essential inorganic nutrients......Page 690
   CONNECTION: 32.7 Fertilizers can help prevent nutrient deficiencies......Page 691
   32.8 Fertile soil supports plant growth......Page 692
   CONNECTION: 32.9 Soil conservation is essential to human life......Page 693
   CONNECTION: 32.11 Agricultural research is improving the yields and nutritional values of crops......Page 694
   32.12 Most plants depend on bacteria to supply nitrogen......Page 695
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 32.13 Plants have evolved mutually beneficial symbiotic relationships......Page 696
   32.14 The plant kingdom includes epiphytes, parasites, and carnivores......Page 697
  CHAPTER 32 REVIEW......Page 698
 CHAPTER 33: Control Systems in Plants......Page 700
   SCIENTIFIC THINKING: 33.1 A series of experiments by several scientists led to the discovery of a plant hormone......Page 702
   33.3 Auxin stimulates the elongation of cells in young shoots......Page 704
   33.5 Gibberellins affect stem elongation and have numerous other effects......Page 706
   33.6 Abscisic acid inhibits many plant processes......Page 707
   33.7 Ethylene triggers fruit ripening and other aging processes......Page 708
   CONNECTION: 33.8 Plant hormones have many agricultural uses......Page 709
   33.9 Tropisms orient plant growth toward or away from environmental stimuli......Page 710
   33.10 Plants have internal clocks......Page 711
   33.11 Plants mark the seasons by measuring photoperiod......Page 712
   33.12 Phytochromes are light detectors that help set the biological clock......Page 713
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 33.13 Defenses against herbivores and infectious microbes have evolved in plants......Page 714
  CHAPTER 33 REVIEW......Page 715
UNIT VII: Ecology......Page 717
 CHAPTER 34: The Biosphere: An Introduction to Earth’s Diverse Environments......Page 718
   34.1 Ecologists study how organisms interact with their environment at several levels......Page 720
   SCIENTIFIC THINKING: 34.2 The science of ecology provides insight into environmental problems......Page 721
   34.3 Physical and chemical factors influence life in the biosphere......Page 722
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 34.4 Organisms are adapted to abiotic and biotic factors by natural selection......Page 723
   34.5 Regional climate influences the distribution of terrestrial communities......Page 724
   34.6 Sunlight and substrate are key factors in the distribution of marine organisms......Page 726
   34.7 Current, sunlight, and nutrients are important abiotic factors in freshwater biomes......Page 728
   34.8 Terrestrial biomes reflect regional variations in climate......Page 729
   34.10 Savannas are grasslands with scattered trees......Page 730
   34.11 Deserts are defined by their dryness......Page 731
   34.13 Temperate grasslands include the North American prairie......Page 732
   34.15 Coniferous forests are often dominated by a few species of trees......Page 733
   34.17 Polar ice covers the land at high latitudes......Page 734
   34.18 The global water cycle connects aquatic and terrestrial biomes......Page 735
  CHAPTER 34 REVIEW......Page 736
 CHAPTER 35: Behavioral Adaptations to the Environment......Page 738
   35.2 Fixed action patterns are innate behaviors......Page 740
   35.3 Behavior is the result of both genetic and environmental factors......Page 742
   35.4 Habituation is a simple type of learning......Page 743
   35.5 Imprinting requires both innate behavior and experience......Page 744
   CONNECTION: 35.6 Imprinting poses problems and opportunities for conservation programs......Page 745
   35.8 A variety of cues guide migratory movements......Page 747
   35.10 Social learning employs observation and imitation of others......Page 748
   35.11 Problem-solving behavior relies on cognition......Page 749
   35.12 Behavioral ecologists use cost–benefit analysis to study foraging......Page 750
   35.13 Communication is an essential element of interactions between animals......Page 751
   35.14 Mating behavior often includes elaborate courtship rituals......Page 752
   35.15 Mating systems and parental care enhance reproductive success......Page 753
   35.16 Chemical pollutants can cause abnormal behavior......Page 754
   35.18 Territorial behavior parcels out space and resources......Page 755
   35.20 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior......Page 756
   35.21 Altruistic acts can often be explained by the concept of inclusive fitness......Page 757
   SCIENTIFIC THINKING: 35.22 Jane Goodall revolutionized our understanding of chimpanzee behavior......Page 758
   35.23 Human behavior is the result of both genetic and environmental factors......Page 759
  CHAPTER 35 REVIEW......Page 760
 CHAPTER 36: Population Ecology......Page 762
   36.2 Density and dispersion patterns are important population variables......Page 764
   36.3 Life tables track survivorship in populations......Page 765
   36.4 Idealized models predict patterns of population growth......Page 766
   36.5 Multiple factors may limit population growth......Page 768
   SCIENTIFIC THINKING: 36.6 Some populations have “boom-and-bust” cycles......Page 769
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 36.7 Evolution shapes life histories......Page 770
   CONNECTION: 36.8 Principles of population ecology have practical applications......Page 771
   36.9 The human population continues to increase, but the growth rate is slowing......Page 772
   CONNECTION: 36.11 An ecological footprint is a measure of resource consumption......Page 774
  CHAPTER 36 REVIEW......Page 776
 CHAPTER 37: Communities and Ecosystems......Page 778
   37.2 Interspecific interactions are fundamental to community structure......Page 780
   37.4 Mutualism benefits both partners......Page 781
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 37.6 Herbivory leads to diverse adaptations in plants......Page 782
   37.7 Parasites and pathogens can affect community composition......Page 783
   37.8 Trophic structure is a key factor in community dynamics......Page 784
   VISUALIZING THE CONCEPT: 37.9 Food chains interconnect, forming food webs......Page 785
   37.10 Species diversity includes relative abundance and species richness......Page 786
   SCIENTIFIC THINKING: 37.11 Some species have a disproportionate impact on diversity......Page 787
   37.12 Disturbance is a prominent feature of most communities......Page 788
   CONNECTION: 37.13 Invasive species can devastate communities......Page 789
   37.15 Primary production sets the energy budget for ecosystems......Page 790
   37.16 Energy supply limits the length of food chains......Page 791
   37.18 Chemicals are cycled between organic matter and abiotic reservoirs......Page 792
   37.19 The carbon cycle depends on photosynthesis and respiration......Page 793
   37.21 The nitrogen cycle depends on bacteria......Page 794
   CONNECTION: 37.22 A rapid inflow of nutrients degrades aquatic ecosystems......Page 796
   CONNECTION: 37.23 Ecosystem services are essential to human well-being......Page 797
  CHAPTER 37 REVIEW......Page 798
 CHAPTER 38: Conservation Biology......Page 800
   38.1 Loss of biodiversity includes the loss of ecosystems, species, and genes......Page 802
   CONNECTION: 38.2 Habitat loss, invasive species, overharvesting, pollution, and climate change are major threats to biodiversity......Page 804
   CONNECTION: 38.3 Rapid warming is changing the global climate......Page 806
   CONNECTION: 38.4 Human activities are responsible for rising concentrations of greenhouse gases......Page 807
   38.5 Global climate change affects biomes, ecosystems, communities, and populations......Page 808
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 38.6 Climate change is an agent of natural selection......Page 809
   38.7 Protecting endangered populations is one goal of conservation biology......Page 810
   38.8 Sustaining ecosystems and landscapes is a conservation priority......Page 811
   38.9 Establishing protected areas slows the loss of biodiversity......Page 812
   38.10 Zoned reserves are an attempt to reverse ecosystem disruption......Page 813
   EVOLUTION CONNECTION: 38.11 The Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative seeks to preserve biodiversity by connecting protected areas......Page 814
   CONNECTION: 38.12 The study of how to restore degraded habitats is a developing science......Page 816
   38.13 Sustainable development is an ultimate goal......Page 817
  CHAPTER 38 REVIEW......Page 818
APPENDIX 1: Metric Conversion Table......Page 821
APPENDIX 2: The Periodic Table......Page 822
APPENDIX 3: The Amino Acids of Proteins......Page 823
APPENDIX 4: Chapter Review Answers......Page 824
APPENDIX 5: Credits......Page 846
Glossary......Page 853
Index......Page 883