Campbell biology : concepts & connections

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Brief Contents
About the Authors
Preface
Acknowledgments
Detailed Contents
1 Biology: Exploring life
	Biology: The scientific study of life
		1.1 What is life?
		1.2 Biologists arrange the diversity of life into three domains
		1.3 Visualizing the concept: In life’s hierarchy of organization, new properties emerge at each level
	The process of science
		1.4 What is science?
		1.5 Hypotheses can be tested using controlled experiments
		1.6 Scientific thinking: Hypotheses can be tested using observational data
		1.7 The process of science is repetitive, nonlinear, and collaborative
		1.8 Connection: Biology, technology, and society are connected in important ways
	Five unifying themes in biology
		1.9 Theme: Evolution is the core theme of biology
		1.10 Evolution connection: Evolution is connected to our everyday lives
		1.11 Theme: Life depends on the flow of information
		1.12 Theme: Structure and function are related
		1.13 Theme: Life depends on the transfer and transformation of energy and matter
		1.14 Theme: Life depends on interactions within and between systems
	Chapter review
Unit I the life of the cell
	2 The chemical basis of life
		Elements, atoms, and compounds
			2.1 Organisms are composed of elements, usually combined into compounds
			2.2  Connection: Trace elements are common additives to food and water
			2.3 Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons
			2.3  Connection: Radioactive isotopes can help or harm us
		Chemical bonds
			2.5 The distribution of electrons determines an atom’s chemical properties
			2.6 Visualizing the concept: Covalent bonds join atoms into molecules through electron sharing
			2.7 Ionic bonds are attractions between ions of opposite charge
			2.8 Hydrogen bonds are weak bonds important in the chemistry of life
			2.9 Chemical reactions make and break chemical bonds
		Water’s life-Supporting properties
			2.10 Hydrogen bonds make liquid water cohesive
			2.11 Water’s hydrogen bonds moderate temperature
			2.12 Ice floats because it is less dense than liquid water
			2.13 Water is the solvent of life
			2.15 The chemistry of life is sensitive to acidic and basic conditions
			2.14 Scientific thinking: Scientists study the effects of rising atmospheric co2 on coral reef ecosystems
			2.16 Evolution connection: The search for extraterrestrial life centers on the search for water
		Chapter Review
	3 The molecules of cells
		Introduction to organic compounds
			3.1 Life’s molecular diversity is based on the properties of carbon
			3.2 A few chemical groups are key to the functioning of biological molecules
			3.3 Cells make large molecules from a limited set of small molecules
		Carbohydrates
			3.4 Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates
			3.5 Two monosaccharides are linked to form a disaccharide
			3.6 Are we eating too much sugar?
			3.7 Polysaccharides are long chains of sugar units
		Lipids
			3.8 Fats are lipids that are mostly energy-storage molecules
			3.9 Scientific thinking: Scientific studies document the health risks of trans fats
			3.10 Phospholipids and steroids are important lipids with a variety of functions
			3.11 Connection: anabolic steroids pose health risks
		Proteins
			3.12 Proteins have a wide range of functions and structures
			3.13 Proteins are made from amino acids linked by peptide bonds
			3.14 Visualizing the concept: a protein’s functional shape results from four levels of structure
		Nucleic acids
			3.15 The nucleic acids dna and rna are information-rich polymers of nucleotides
			3.16 Evolution connection: lactose tolerance is a recent event in human evolution
		Chapter review
	4 A tour of the cell
		Introduction to the cell
			4.1 Microscopes reveal the world of the cell
			4.2 The small size of cells relates to the need to exchange materials across the plasma membrane
			4.3 Prokaryotic cells are structurally simpler than eukaryotic cells
			4.4 Eukaryotic cells are partitioned into functional compartments
		The nucleus and ribosomes
			4.5 The nucleus contains the cell’s genetic instructions
			4.6 Ribosomes make proteins for use in the cell and for export
		The endomembrane system
			4.7 Many organelles are connected in the endomembrane system
			4.8 The endoplasmic reticulum is a biosynthetic workshop
			4.9 The golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and ships cell products
			4.10 Iysosomes are digestive compartments within a cell
			4.11 Vacuoles function in the general maintenance of the cell
		Energy-converting organelles
			4.12 A review of the structures involved in manufacturing and breakdown
			4.13 Mitochondria harvest chemical energy from food
			4.14 Chloroplasts convert solar energy to chemical energy
			4.15 Evolution connection: mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved by endosymbiosis
		The cytoskeleton and cell surfaces
			4.16 The cell’s internal skeleton helps organize its structure and activities
			4.17 Scientific thinking: Scientists discovered the cytoskeleton using the tools of biochemistry and microscopy
			4.18 Cilia and flagella move when microtubules bend
			4.19 The extracellular matrix of animal cells functions in support and regulation
			4.20 Three types of cell junctions are found in animal tissues
			4.21 Cell walls enclose and support plant cells
			4.22 Review: Eukaryotic cell structures can be grouped on the basis of four main functions
		Chapter review
	5 The working cell
		Membrane structure and function
			5.1 Visualizing the concept: Membranes are fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins with many functions
			5.2 Evolution connection: The spontaneous formation of membranes was a critical step in the origin of life
			5.3 Passive transport is diffusion across a membrane with no energy investment
			5.4 Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a membrane
			5.5 Water balance between cells and their surroundings is crucial to organisms
			5.6 Transport proteins can facilitate diffusion across membranes
			5.6 Scientific thinking: Research on another membrane protein led to the discovery of aquaporins
			5.8 Cells expend energy in the active transport of a solute
			5.9 Exocytosis and endocytosis transport large molecules across membranes
		Energy and the cell
			5.10 Cells transform energy and matter as they perform work
			5.11 Chemical reactions either release or store energy
			5.12 ATP drives cellular work by coupling exergonic and endergonic reactions
		How enzymes function
			5.13 Enzymes speed up the cell’s chemical reactions by lowering energy barriers
			5.14 A specific enzyme catalyzes each cellular reaction
			5.15 Enzyme inhibition can regulate enzyme activity in a cell
			5.16 Connection: Many drugs, pesticides, and poisons are enzyme inhibitors
		Chpter review
	6 How cells harvest chemical energy
		Cellular respiration: Aerobic harvesting of energy
			6.1 Photosynthesis and cellular respiration provide energy for life
			6.2 Breathing supplies o2 for use in cellular respiration and removes co2
			6.3 Cellular respiration banks energy in atp molecules
			6.4 Connection: the human body uses energy from atp for all its activities
			6.5 Cells capture energy from electrons “falling” from organic fuels to oxygen
		Stages of cellular respiration
			6.6 Overview: Cellular respiration occurs in three main stages
			6.7 Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate
			6.8 A fter pyruvate is oxidized, the citric acid cycle completes the energy-yielding oxidation of organic molecules
			6.9 Visualizing the concept: Most atp production occurs by oxidative phosphor ylation
			6.10 Scientific thinking: scientists have discovered heat-producing, calorie-burning brown fat in adults
			6.11 Review: each molecule of glucose yields many molecules of atp
		Fermentation: Anaerobic harvesting of energy
			6.12 Fermentation enables cells to produce atp without oxygen
			6.13 Evolution connection: glycolysis evolved early in the history of life on earth
		Connections between metabolic pathways
			6.14 Cells use many kinds of organic molecules as fuel for cellular respiration
			6.15 Organic molecules from food provide raw materials for biosynthesis
		Chapter review
	7 Photosynthesis: using light to make food
		An introduction to photosynthesis
			7.1 Photosynthesis fuels the biosphere
			7.2 Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts in plant cells
			7.3 Scientists traced the process of photosynthesis using isotopes
			7.4 Photosynthesis is a redox process, as is cellular respiration
			7.5 photosynthesis occurs in two stages, which are linked by atp and nadph
		The light reactions: converting solar energy to chemical energy
			7.6 Visible radiation absorbed by pigments drives the light reactions
			7.7 Photosystems capture solar energy
			7.8 Two photosystems connected by an electron transport chain convert light energy to the chemical energy of atp and nadph
			7.9 Visualizing the concept: the light reactions take place within the thylakoid membranes
		The calvin cycle: reducing co2 to sugar
			7.10 ATP and nadph power sugar synthesis in the calvin cycle
			7.11 Evolution Connection: Other methods of carbon fixation have evolved in hot, dry climates
		The global significance of photosynthesis
			7.12 Photosynthesis provides food and o2 for almost all living organisms
			7.13 Scientific Thinking: Rising atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide may affect plants in various ways
			7.14 Connection: Reducing both fossil fuel use and deforestation may moderate climate change
		Chapter Review
Unit II Cellular reproduction and genetics
	8 The cellular basis of reproduction and inheritance
		Cell division and reproduction
			8.1 Cell division plays many important roles in the lives of organisms
			8.2 Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission
		The eukaryotic cell cycle and mitosis
			8.3 The large, complex chromosomes of eukaryotes duplicate with each cell division
			8.4 The cell cycle includes growth and division phases
			8.5 Cell division is a continuum of dynamic changes
			8.6 Cytokinesis differs for plant and animal cells
			8.7 The rate of cell division is affected by environmental factors
			8.8 Growth factors signal the cell cycle control system
			8.9 Connection: Growing out of control, cancer cells produce malignant tumors
			8.10 Scientific Thinking: The best cancer treatment may vary by individual
		Meiosis and crossing over
			8.11 Chromosomes are matched in homologous pairs
			8.12 Gametes have a single set of chromosomes
			8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid
			8.14 Visualizing the concept: Mitosis and meiosis have important similarities and differences
			8.15 Independent orientation of chromosomes in meiosis and random fertilization lead to varied offspring
			8.16 Homologous chromosomes may carry different versions of genes
			8.17 Visualizing the concept: Crossing over further increases genetic variability
		Alterations of chromosome number and structure
			8.18 Accidents during meiosis can alter chromosome number
			8.19 A karyotype is a photographic inventory of an individual’s chromosomes
			8.20 Connection: An extra copy of chromosome 21 causes down syndrome
			8.21 Connection: Abnormal numbers of sex chromosomes do not usually affect survival
			8.22 Evolution Connection: New species can arise from errors in cell division
			8.23 Connection: Alterations of chromosome structure can cause birth defects and cancer
		Chapter Review
	9 Patterns of inheritance
		Mendel’s laws
			9.1 The study of genetics has ancient roots
			9.2 The science of genetics began in an abbey garden
			9.3 Mendel’s law of segregation describes the inheritance of a single character
			9.4 Homologous chromosomes bear the alleles for each character
			9.5 The law of independent assortment is revealed by tracking two characters at once
			9.6 Geneticists can use a testcross to determine unknown genotypes
			9.7 Mendel’s laws reflect the rules of probability
			9.8 Visualizing the concept: Genetic traits in humans can be tracked through family pedigrees
			9.9 Many inherited traits in humans are controlled by a single gene
			9.10 New technologies can provide insight into one’s genetic legacy
		Variations on mendel’s laws
			9.11 Incomplete dominance results in intermediate phenotypes
			9.12 Many genes have more than two alleles that may be codominant
			9.13 A single gene may affect many phenotypic characters
			9.14 A single character may be influenced by many genes
			9.15 The environment affects many characters
		The chromosomal basis of inheritance
			9.16 Chromosome behavior accounts for mendel’s laws
			9.17 Scientific Thinking: Genes on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together
			9.18 Crossing over produces new combinations of alleles
			9.19 Geneticists use crossover data to map genes
		Sex chromosomes and sex-linked genes
			9.20 Chromosomes determine sex in many species
			9.21 Sex-linked genes exhibit a unique pattern of inheritance
			9.22 Connection: Human sex-linked disorders affect mostly males
			9.23 Evolution Connection: The y chromosome provides clues about human male evolution
		Chapter Review
	10 Molecular biology of the gene
		The structure of the genetic material
			10.1 Scientific Thinking: Experiments showed that dna is the genetic material
			10.2 DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides
			10.3 DNA is a double-stranded helix
		DNA replication
			10.4 DNA replication depends on specific base pairing
			10.5 DNA replication proceeds in two directions at many sites simultaneously
		The flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein
			10.6 Genes control phenotypic traits through the expression of proteins
			10.7 Genetic information written in codons is translated into amino acid sequences
			10.8 The genetic code dictates how codons are translated into amino acids
			10.9 Visualizing the concept: Transcription produces genetic messages in the form of rna
			10.10 Eukaryotic RNA is processed before leaving the nucleus as mrna
			10.11 Transfer RNA molecules serve as interpreters during translation
			10.12 Ribosomes build polypeptides
			10.13 An initiation codon marks the start of an mrna message
			10.14 Elongation adds amino acids to the polypeptide chain until a stop codon terminates translation
			10.15 Review: The flow of genetic information in the cell is DNA RNA Protein
			10.16 Mutations can affect genes
		The genetics of viruses and bacteria
			10.17 Viral DNA may become part of the host chromosome
			10.18 Connection: Many viruses cause disease in animals and plants
			10.19 Evolution Connection: Emerging viruses threaten human health
			10.20 The AIDS virus makes DNA on an RNA template
			10.21 Prions are infectious proteins
			10.22 Bacteria can transfer DNA in three ways
			10.23 Bacterial plasmids can serve as carriers for gene transfer
		Chapter Review
	11 How genes are controlled
		Control of gene expression
			11.1 Proteins interacting with DNA turn prokaryotic genes on or off in response to environmental changes
			11.2 Chromosome structure and chemical modifications can affect gene expression
			11.3 Complex assemblies of proteins control eukaryotic transcription
			11.4 Eukaryotic rna may be spliced in more than one way
			11.5 Later stages of gene expression are also subject to regulation
			11.6 Noncoding rnas play multiple roles in controlling gene expression
			11.7 Visualizing the concept: Multiple mechanisms regulate gene expression in eukaryotes
			11.8 Cell signaling and waves of gene expression direct animal development
			11.9 Connection: Researchers can monitor the expression of specific genes
			11.10 Signal transduction pathways convert messages received at the cell surface to responses within the cell
			11.11 Cell-signaling systems appeared early in the evolution of life
		Cloning of plants and animals
			11.12 Plant cloning shows that differentiated cells may retain all of their genetic potential
			1.13 Scientific Thinking: Biologists can clone animals via nuclear transplantation
			11.14 Connection: Therapeutic cloning can produce stem cells with great medical potential
		The genetic basis of cancer
			11.15 Cancer results from mutations in genes that control cell division
			11.16 Multiple genetic changes underlie the development of cancer
			11.17 Faulty proteins can interfere with normal signal transduction pathways
			11.18 Connection: Lifestyle choices can reduce the risk of cancer
		Chapter Review
	12 DNA technology and genomics
		Gene cloning and editing
			1.1 Genes can be cloned in recombinant plasmids
			12.2 Visualizing the concept: Enzymes are used to “cut and paste” DNA
			12.3 Nucleic acid probes can label specific dna segments
			12.4 Reverse transcriptase can help make genes for cloning
			12. 5 New techniques allow a specific gene to be edited
		Genetically modified organisms
			12.6 Recombinant cells and organisms can mass-produce gene products
			12.7 Connection: DNA technology has changed the pharmaceutical industry and medicine
			12.8 Connection: Genetically modified organisms are transforming agriculture
			12.9 Scientific Thinking: The use of genetically modified organisms raises questions and concerns
			12.10 Connection: Gene therapy may someday help treat a variety of diseases
		DNA profiling
			12.11 The analysis of genetic markers can produce a DNA profile
			12.12 The PCR method is used to amplify DNA equences
			12.13 Gel electrophoresis sorts dna molecules by size
			12.14 Short tandem repeat analysis is used for dna profiling
			12.15 Connection: DNA profiling has provided evidence in many forensic investigations
		Genomics and bioinformatics
			12.16 Small segments of dna can be sequenced directly
			12.17 Genomics is the scientific study of whole genomes
			12.18 The human genome project revealed that most of the human genome does not consist of genes
			12.19 The whole-genome shotgun method of sequencing a genome can provide a wealth of data quickly
			12.20 The field of bioinformatics is expanding our understanding of genomes
			12.21 Evolution Connection: Genomes hold clues to human evolution
		Chapter Review
Unit III Concepts of evolution
	13 How populations evolve
		Darwin’s theory of evolution
			13.1 A sea voyage helped darwin frame his theory of evolution
			13.2 The study of fossils provides strong evidence for evolution
			13.3 Scientific Thinking Fossils of transitional forms support darwin’s theory of evolution
			13.4 Homologies provide strong evidence for evolution
			13.5 Homologies indicate patterns of descent that can be shown on an evolutionary tree
			13.6 Darwin proposed natural selection as the mechanism of evolution
			13.7 Scientists can observe natural selection in action
		The evolution of populations
			13.8 Mutation and sexual reproduction produce the genetic variation that makes evolution possible
			13.9 Evolution occurs within populations
			13.10 The hardy-weinberg equation can test whether a population is evolving
			13.11 Connection The hardy-weinberg equation is useful in public health science
		Mechanisms of microevolution
			13.12 Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow can cause microevolution
			13.13 Natural selection is the only mechanism that consistently leads to adaptive evolution
			13.14 Visualizing the concept natural selection can alter variation in a population in three ways
			13.15 Sexual selection may lead to phenotypic differences between males and females
			13.16 The evolution of drug-resistant microorganisms is a serious public health concern
			13.17 Diploidy and balancing selection preserve genetic variation
			13.18 Natural selection cannot fashion perfect organisms
		Chapter Review
	14 The origin of species
		Defining species
			14.1 The origin of species is the source of biological diversity
			14.2 There are several ways to define a species
			14.3 Visualizing the concept: Reproductive barriers keep species separate
		Mechanisms of speciation
			14.4 In allopatric speciation, geographic isolation leads to speciation
			14.5 Reproductive barriers can evolve as populations diverge
			14.6 Sympatric speciation takes place without geographic isolation
			14.7 Sexual selection can lead to speciation
			14.8 Isolated islands are often showcases of speciation
			14.9 Evolution Connection: Long-Term field studies document evolution in darwin’s finches
			14.10 Hybrid zones provide opportunities to study reproductive isolation
			14.11 Speciation can occur rapidly or slowly
		Chapter Review
	15 Tracing evolutionary history
		Early earth and the origin of life
			15.1 Conditions on early earth made the origin of life possible
			15.2 Scientific Thinking: Experiments show that the abiotic synthesis of organic molecules is possible
			15.3 Stages in the origin of the first cells probably included the formation of polymers, protocells, and self-replicating rna
		Major events in the history of life
			15.4 The origins of single-celled and multicellular organisms and the colonization of land were key events in life’s history
			15.5 The actual ages of rocks and fossils mark geologic time
			15.6 The fossil record documents the history of life
		Mechanisms of macroevolution
			15.7 Continental drift has played a major role in macroevolution
			15.8 Connection: Plate tectonics may imperil human life
			15.9 Five mass extinctions have altered the course of evolution
			15.10 Adaptive radiations have increased the diversity of life
			15.11 Genes that control development play a major role in evolution
			15.12 Evolution Connection: Novel traits may arise in several ways
			15.13 Evolutionary trends do not mean that evolution is goal directed
		Phylogeny and the tree of life
			15.14 Taxonomy names and classifies the diversity of life
			15.15 Phylogenies based on homologies reflect evolutionary history
			15.16 Shared characters are used to construct phylogenetic trees
			15.17 An organism’s evolutionary history is documented in its genome
			15.18 Molecular clocks help track evolutionary time
			15.19 Constructing the tree of life is a work in progress
		Chapter Review
Unit IV The Evolution of Biological Diversity
	16 Microbial Life: Prokaryotes and Protists
		Prokaryotes
			16.1 Prokaryotes are diverse and widespread
			16.2 External features contribute to the success of prokaryotes
			16.3 Populations of prokaryotes can adapt rapidly to changes in the environment
			16.4 Prokaryotes have unparalleled nutritional diversity
			16.5 Connection: Biofilms are complex associations of microbes
			16.6 Connection: Prokaryotes help clean up the environment
			16.7 Bacteria and archaea are the two main branches of prokaryotic evolution
			16.8 Archaea thrive in extreme environments—and in other habitats
			16.9 Bacteria include a diverse assemblage of prokaryotes
			16.10 Connection: Some bacteria cause disease
			16.11 Scientific Thinking: Stomach microbiota affect health and disease
		Protists
			16.12 Protists are an extremely diverse assortment of eukaryotes
			16.13 Protist diversity is organized in supergroups
			16.14 The sar supergroup represents the range of protist diversity
			16.15 Connection: Can algae provide a renewable source of energy?
			16.16 Some excavates have modified mitochondria
			16.17 Unikonts include protists that are closely related to fungi and animals
			16.18 Archaeplastids include red algae, green algae, and land plants
			16.19 Evolution Connection: Multicellularity evolved several times in eukaryotes
		Chapter Review
	17 The evolution of plant and fungal diversity
		Plant evolution and diversity
			17.1 Plants have adaptations for life on land
			17.2 Plant diversity reflects the evolutionary history of the plant kingdom
			17.3 Visualizing the concept: haploid and diploid generations alternate in plant life cycles
		Alternation of generations and plant life cycles
			17.4 Seedless vascular plants dominated vast “coal forests”
			17.5 Pollen and seeds are key adaptations for life on land
			17.6 The flower is the centerpiece of angiosperm reproduction
			17.7 The angiosperm plant is a sporophyte with gametophytes in its flowers
			17.8 The structure of a fruit reflects its function in seed dispersal
			17.9 Connection: Angiosperms sustain us—and add spice to our diets
			17.10 Evolution Connection: Pollination by animals has influenced angiosperm evolution
			17.11 Connection: Plant diversity is vital to the future of the world’s food supply
		Diversity of fungi
			17.12 Fungi absorb food after digesting it outside their bodies
			17.13 Fungi produce spores in both asexual and sexual life cycles
			17.14 Fungi are classified into five groups
			17.15 Fungi have enormous ecological benefits
			17.16 Fungi have many practical uses
			17.17 Lichens are symbiotic associations of fungi and photosynthetic organisms
			17.18 Scientific Thinking: Mycorrhizae may have helped plants colonize land
			17.19 Connection: Parasitic fungi harm plants and animals
		Chapter Review
	18 The evolution of invertebrate diversity
		Animal evolution and diversity
			18.1 What is an animal?
			18.2 Animal diversification began more than half a billion years ago
			18.3 Visualizing the concept: A nimals can be characterized by basic features of their “body plan”
			18.4 Body plans and molecular comparisons of animals can be used to build phylogenetic trees
		Invertebrate diversity
			18.5 Sponges have a relatively simple, porous body
			18.6 Cnidarians are radial animals with tentacles and stinging cells
			18.7 Flatworms are the simplest bilateral animals
			18.8 Nematodes have a body cavity and a complete digestive tract
			18.9 Diverse molluscs are variations on a common body plan
			18.10 Annelids are segmented worms
			18.11 Arthropods are segmented animals with jointed appendages and an exoskeleton
			18.12 Evolution Connection: Insects are the most successful group of animals
			18.13 Scientific Thinking: The genes that build animal bodies are ancient
			18.14 Echinoderms have spiny skin, an endoskeleton, and a water vascular system for movement
			18.15 Our own phylum, chordata, is distinguished by four features
			18.16 Connection: Invertebrate diversity is a valuable but threatened resource
		Chapter Review
	19 The evolution of vertebrate diversity
		Vertebrate evolution and diversity
			19.1 Shared derived characters define the major clades of chordates
			19.2 Hagfishes and lampreys lack hinged jaws
			19.3 Jawed vertebrates with gills and paired fins include sharks, ray-finned fishes, and lobe-finned fishes
			19.4 Evolution Connection: New fossil discoveries are filling in the gaps of tetrapod evolution
			19.5 Amphibians are tetrapods—vertebrates with two pairs of limbs
			19.6 Reptiles are amniotes—tetrapods with a terrestrially adapted egg
			19.7 Birds are feathered reptiles with adaptations for flight
			19.8 Mammals are amniotes that have hair and produce milk
		Primate diversity
			19.9 Visualizing the concept: many primate characters are adaptations to life in the trees
			19.10 The human story begins with our primate heritage
		Hominin evolution
			19.11 The hominin branch of the primate tree includes species that coexisted
			19.12 Australopiths were bipedal and had small brains
			19.13 Larger brains mark the evolution of
			19.14 From origins in Africa, Homo sapiens spread around the world
			19.15 Scientific Thinking: New discoveries raise new questions about the history of hominins
			19.16 Evolution Connection: Human skin color reflects adaptations to varying amounts of sunlight
			Connection: Our knowledge of animal diversity is far from complete
		Chapter Review
Unit V Animals: Form and Function
	20 Unifying concepts of animal structure and function
		Evolution Connection: Structure and function in animal tissues
			20.1 Evolution Connection: An animal’s form is not the perfect design
			20.2 Structure fits function at all levels of organization in the animal body
			20.3 Tissues are groups of cells with a common structure and function
			20.4 Epithelial tissue covers the body and lines its organs and cavities
			20.5 Connective tissue binds and supports other tissues
			20.6 Muscle tissue functions in movement
			20.7 Nervous tissue forms a communication network
		Organs and organ systems
			20.8 Organs are made up of tissues
			20.9 Connection: Bioengineers are learning to produce organs for transplants
			20.10 Organ systems work together to perform life’s functions
			20.11 The integumentary system protects the body
			20.12 Scientific Thinking: Well-designed experiments help answer scientific questions
		External exchange and internal regulation
			20.13 Structural adaptations enhance exchange with the environment
			20.14 Animals regulate their internal environment
			20.15 Homeostasis depends on negative feedback
		Chapter Review
	21 Nutrition and digestion
		Obtaining and processing food
			21.2 Animals obtain and ingest their food in a variety of ways
			21.2 Overview: Food processing occurs in four stages
			21.3 Digestion occurs in specialized compartments
		The human digestive system
			21.4 The human digestive system consists of an alimentary canal and accessory organs
			21.5 Digestion begins in the oral cavity
			21.6 After swallowing, peristalsis moves food through the esophagus to the stomach
			21.7 Connection: The heimlich maneuver can save lives
			21.8 The stomach stores food and breaks it down with acid and enzymes
			21.9 Connection: Digestive ailments include acid reflux and gastric ulcers
			21.10 The small intestine is the major organ of chemical digestion and nutrient absorption
			21.11 The liver processes and detoxifies blood from the intestines
			21.12 The large intestine reclaims water and compacts the feces
			21.13 Evolution Connection: Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate digestive systems relate to diet
		Nutrition
			21.14 An animal’s diet must provide sufficient energy
			21.15 An animal’s diet must supply essential nutrients
			21.16 A proper human diet must include sufficient vitamins and minerals
			21.17 Connection: Food labels provide nutritional information
			21.18 Connection: Dietary deficiencies can have a number of causes
			21.19 Evolution Connection: The human health problem of obesity may reflect our evolutionary past
			21.20 Scientific Thinking: Scientists use a variety of methods to test weight loss claims
			21.21 Diet can influence risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer
		Chapter Review
	22 Gas exchange
		Mechanisms of gas exchange
			22.1 Gas exchange in humans involves breathing, transport of gases, and exchange with body cells
			22.2 Animals exchange O2 and CO2 across moist body surfaces
			22.3 visualizing the concept: Gills are adapted for gas exchange in aquatic environments
			22.4 The tracheal system of insects provides direct exchange between the air and body cells
			22.5 Evolution Connection: The evolution of lungs facilitated the movement of tetrapods onto land
		The human respiratory system
			22.6 In mammals, branching tubes convey air to lungs located in the chest cavity
			22.7 Scientific Thinking: Warning: cigarette smoking is hazardous to your health
			22.8 Negative pressure breathing ventilates your lungs
			22.9 Breathing is automatically controlled
		Transport of gases in the human body
			22.10 Blood transports respiratory gases
			22.11 Hemoglobin carries O2, helps transport CO2, and buffers the blood
			22.12 Connection: The human fetus exchanges gases with the mother’s blood
		Chapter Review
	23 Circulation
		Circulatory systems
			23.1 Circulatory systems facilitate exchange with all body tissues
			23.2 Evolution ConnectionVertebrate cardiovascular systems reflect evolution
		The human cardiovascular system and heart
			23.3 Visualizing the concept: The human cardiovascular system illustrates the double circulation of mammals
			23.4 The heart contracts and relaxes rhythmically
			23.5 The sa node sets the tempo of the heartbeat
			23.6 Scientific Thinking: How should heart disease be treated?
		Structure and function of blood vessels
			23.7 The structure of blood vessels fits their functions
			23.8 Blood pressure and velocity reflect the structure and arrangement of blood vessels
			23.9 Connection: Measuring blood pressure can reveal cardiovascular problems
			23.10 A rteriole diameter and precapillary sphincters control the distribution of blood
			23.11 Capillaries allow the transfer of substances through their walls
		Structure and function of blood
			23.12 Blood consists of red and white blood cells suspended in plasma
			23.13 Connection: Too few or too many red blood cells can be unhealthy
			23.14 Blood clots plug leaks when blood vessels are injured
			23.15 Connection: Stem cells offer a potential cure for blood cell diseases
		Chapter Review
	24 The immune system
		Innate immunity
			24.1 All animals have innate immunity
			24.2 The inflammatory response disinfects damaged tissue
		Adaptive immunity
			24.3 The adaptive immune response counters specific invaders
			24.4 The lymphatic system becomes a crucial battleground during infection
			24.5 Lymphocytes mount a dual defense
			24.6 Antigen receptors and antibodies bind to specific regions on an antigen
			24.7 Visualizing the concept: Clonal selection mobilizes defenses against specific antigens
			24.8 The primary and secondary responses differ in speed, strength, and duration
			24.9 Connection: Herd immunity prevents the outbreak of infectious disease
			24.10 The structure of an antibody matches its function
			24.11 Scientific Thinking: Scientists measure antibody levels to look for waning immunity after hpv vaccination
			24.12 Helper t cells stimulate the humoral and cell-mediated immune responses
			24.13 Cytotoxic t cells destroy infected body cells
			24.14 ConnectionL: HIV destroys helper t cells, compromising the body’s defenses
			24.15 Evolution Connection: The rapid evolution of hiv complicates aids treatment
			The immune system depends on our molecular fingerprints
		Disorders of the immune system
			Connection: Immune system disorders result from self-directed or underactive responses
			Connection: Allergies are overreactions to certain environmental antigens
		Chapter Review
	25 Control of body temperature and water balance
		Thermoregulation
			25.1 An animal’s regulation of body temperature helps maintain homeostasis
			25.2 Thermoregulation involves adaptations that balance heat gain and loss
			25.3 Scientific Thinking: Coordinated waves of movement in huddles help penguins thermoregulate
		Osmoregulation and excretion
			25.4 Visualizing the concept: Animals balance their levels of water and solutes through osmoregulation
			25.5 Evolution Connection: Several ways to dispose of nitrogenous wastes have evolved in animals
			25.6 The urinary system plays several major roles in homeostasis
			25.7 The kidney is a water-conserving organ
			25.8 Hormones regulate the urinary system
			25.9 Connection: Kidney dialysis can save lives
		Chapter Review
	26 Hormones and the endocrine system
		The nature of chemical regulation
			26.1 Chemical and electrical signals coordinate body functions
			26.2 Hormones affect target cells using two main signaling mechanisms
			26.3 Scientific Thinking: A widely used weed killer demasculinizes male frogs
		The vertebrate endocrine system
			26.4 The vertebrate endocrine system consists of more than a dozen major glands
			26.5 The hypothalamus, which is closely tied to the pituitary, connects the nervous and endocrine systems
		Hormones and homeostasis
			26.6 The thyroid regulates development and metabolism
			26.7 The gonads secrete sex hormones
			26.8 Visualizing the concept: Pancreatic hormones regulate blood glucose level
			26.9 Connection: Diabetes is a common endocrine disorder
			26.10 The adrenal glands mobilize responses to stress
			26.11 Evolution Connection: A single hormone can perform a variety of functions in different animals
			26.12 Connection: Hormones can promote social behaviors
		Chapter Review
	27 Reproduction and embryonic development
		Asexual and sexual reproduction
			27.1 Asexual reproduction results in the generation of genetically identical offspring
			27.2 Sexual reproduction results in the generation of genetically unique offspring
		Human reproduction
			27.3 The human female reproductive system includes the ovaries and structures that deliver gametes
			27.4 The human male reproductive system includes the testes and structures that deliver gametes
			27.5 The formation of sperm and egg cells requires meiosis
			27.6 Hormones synchronize cyclic changes in the ovary and uterus
			27.7 Scientific Thinking: Sexual activity can transmit disease
			27.8 Connection: Contraception can prevent unwanted pregnancy
		Principles of embryonic development
			27.9 Fertilization results in a zygote and triggers embryonic development
			27.10 Cleavage produces a blastula from the zygote
			27.11 Gastrulation produces a three-layered embryo
			27.12 Organs start to form after gastrulation
			27.13 Multiple processes give form to the developing animal
			27.14 Evolution Connection: Pattern formation during embryonic development is controlled by ancient genes
		Human development
			27.15 The embryo and placenta take shape during the first month of pregnancy
			27.16 Visualizing the concept: human pregnancy is divided into trimesters
			27.17 Childbirth is induced by hormones and other chemical signals
			27.18 Connection: Reproductive technologies increase our reproductive options
		Chapter Review
	28 Nervous systems
		Nervous system structure and function
			28.1 Nervous systems receive sensory input, interpret it, and send out commands
			28.2 Neurons are the functional units of nervous systems
		Nerve signals and their transmission
			28.3 A nerve signal begins as a change in the membrane potential
			28.4 Nerve function depends on charge differences across neuron membranes
			28.5 The action potential propagates itself along the axon
			28.6 Visualizing the concept: neurons communicate at synapses
			28.7 Chemical synapses enable complex information to be processed
			28.8 A variety of small molecules function as neurotransmitters
			28.9 Connection: Many drugs act at chemical synapses
			28.10 Scientific Thinking: Published data are biased toward positive findings
		An overview of animal nervous systems
			28.11 Evolution Connection: The evolution of animal nervous systems reflects changes in body symmetry
			28.12 Vertebrate nervous systems are highly centralized
			28.13 The peripheral nervous system of vertebrates can be divided into functional components
			28.14 The vertebrate brain develops from three anterior bulges of the neural tube
		The human brain
			28.15 The structure of a living supercomputer: the human brain
			28.16 The cerebral cortex controls voluntary movement and cognitive functions
			28.17 Connection: Injuries and brain operations provide insight into brain function
			28.18 The nervous system can reorganize its neural connections
			28.19 The reticular formation is involved in arousal and sleep
			28.20 The limbic system is involved in emotions and memory
			28.21 Connection: Changes in brain physiology can produce neurological disorders
		Chapter Review
	29 The senses
		Sensory reception
			29.1 Sensory receptors convert stimuli to action potentials
			29.2 The model for magnetic sensory reception is incomplete
			29.3 Specialized sensory receptors detect five categories of stimuli
		Hearing and balance
			29.4 The ear converts air pressure waves to action potentials that are perceived as sound
			29.5 The inner ear houses our organs of balance
			29.6 Connection: What causes motion sickness?
		Vision
			29.7 Evolution Connection: Several types of eyes have evolved among animals
			29.8 The human eye focuses by changing the shape of the lens
			Connection: Many vision problems can be corrected with artificial lenses or surgery
			29.10 The human retina contains two types of photoreceptors: rods and cones
		Taste and smell
			29.11 Taste and odor receptors detect chemicals present in solution or air
			29.12 Connection: Does cilantro taste like soap to you?
			29.13 Summary: the central nervous system couples stimulus with response
		Chapter Review
	30 How animals move
		Movement and locomotion
			30.1 Locomotion requires energy to overcome friction and gravity
			30.2 Skeletons function in support, movement, and protection
		The vertebrate skeleton
			30.3 Evolution Connection: Vertebrate skeletons are variations on an ancient theme
			30.4 Bones are complex living organs
			30.5 Connection: Healthy bones resist stress and heal from injuries
			30.6 Joints permit different types of movement
		Muscle contraction and movement
			30.7 The skeleton and muscles interact in movement
			30.8 Each muscle cell has its own contractile apparatus
			30.9 A muscle contracts when thin filaments slide along thick filaments
			30.10 Motor neurons stimulate muscle contraction
			30.11 Connection: Aerobic respiration supplies most of the energy for exercise
			30.12 Scientific Thinking: Characteristics of muscle fibers affect athletic performance
		Chapter Review
Unit VI Plants: Form and Function
	31 Plant structure, growth, and reproduction
		Plant structure and function
			31.1 Scientific Thinking: The domestication of crops changed the course of human history
			31.2 The two major groups of angiosperms are the monocots and the eudicots
			31.3 A typical plant body contains three basic organs: roots, stems, and leaves
			31.4 Connection: Many plants have modified roots, stems, and leaves
			31.5 Three tissue systems make up the plant body
			31.6 Plant cells are diverse in structure and function
		Plant growth
			31.7 Primary growth lengthens roots and shoots
			31.8 Secondary growth increases the diameter of woody plants
		Reproduction of flowering plants
			31.9 The flower is the organ of sexual reproduction in angiosperms
			31.10 The development of pollen and ovules culminates in fertilization
			31.11 The ovule develops into a seed
			31.12 The ovary develops into a fruit
			31.13 Seed germination continues the life cycle
			31.14 Asexual reproduction produces plant clones
			31.15 Connection: Plant cloning is an important agricultural tool
			31.16 Evolution Connection: Evolutionary adaptations help some plants to live very long lives
		Chapter Review
	32 Plant nutrition and transport
		The uptake and transport of plant nutrients
			32.1 Plants acquire nutrients from air, water, and soil
			32.2 The plasma membranes of root cells control solute uptake
			32.3 Visualizing the concept: Transpiration pulls water up xylem vessels
			32.4 Guard cells control transpiration
			32.5 Phloem transports sugars
			32.6 Connection: Humans tap into plant transport structures
		Plant nutrients and the soil
			32.7 Plant health depends on obtaining all of the essential inorganic nutrients
			32.8 Connection: Fertilizers can help prevent nutrient deficiencies
			32.9 Fertile soil supports plant growth
			32.10 Connection: Soil conservation is essential to human life
			32.11 Scientific Thinking: Organic farmers follow principles meant to promote health
			32.12 Connection: Genetic engineering is improving the yields and nutritional values of crops
		Plant nutrition and symbiosis
			32.13 Most plants depend on bacteria to supply nitrogen
			32.14 Evolution Connection: Mutually beneficial relationships have evolved between plants and other kinds of organisms
			32.15 The plant kingdom includes epiphytes, parasites, and carnivores
		Chapter Review
	33 Control systems in plants
		Plant hormones
			33.1 Scientific Thinking: A series of experiments by several scientists led to the discovery of a plant hormone
			33.2 Botanists have identified several major types of hormones
			33.3 Auxin stimulates the elongation of cells in young shoots
			33.4 Cytokinins stimulate cell division
			33.5 Gibberellins affect stem elongation and have numerous other effects
			33.6 Abscisic acid inhibits many plant processes
			33.7 Ethylene triggers fruit ripening and other aging processes
			33.8 Connection: Plant hormones have many agricultural uses
		Responses to stimuli
			33.9 Tropisms orient plant growth toward or away from environmental stimuli
			33.10 Plants have internal clocks
			33.11 Plants mark the seasons by measuring photoperiod
			33.12 Phytochromes are light detectors that help set the biological clock
			33.13 Defenses against herbivores and infectious microbes have evolved in plants
		Chapter Review
Unit VII Ecology
	34 The Biosphere: An introduction to Earth’s diverse environments
		The biosphere
			34.1 Ecologists study how organisms interact with their environment at several levels
			34.2 Scientific Thinking: The science of ecology provides insight into environmental problems
			34.3 Physical and chemical factors influence life in the biosphere
			34.4 Evolution Connection: Organisms are adapted to abiotic and biotic factors through natural selection
			34.5 Regional climate influences the distribution of terrestrial communities
		Aquatic biomes
			34.6 Sunlight and substrate are key factors in the distribution of marine organisms
			34.7 Current, sunlight, and nutrients are important abiotic factors in freshwater biomes
		Terrestrial biomes
			34.8 Terrestrial biomes reflect regional variations in climate
			34.9 Tropical forests cluster near the equator
			34.10 Savannas are grasslands with scattered trees
			34.11 Deserts are defined by their dryness
			34.12 Spiny shrubs dominate the chaparral
			34.13 Temperate grasslands include the north american prairie
			34.14 Coniferous forests are often dominated by a few species of trees
			34.15 Broadleaf trees dominate temperate forests
			34.16 Long, bitter-cold winters characterize the tundra
			34.17 Polar ice covers the land at high latitudes
			34.18 Visualizing the concept: the global water cycle connects aquatic and terrestrial biomes
		Chapter Review
	35 Behavioral adaptations to the environment
		The scientific study of behavior
			35.1 Behavioral ecologists ask both proximate and ultimate questions
			35.2 Fixed action patterns are innate behaviors
			35.3 Behavior is the result of both genetic and environmental factors
		Learning
			35.4 Habituation is a simple type of learning
			35.5 Imprinting requires both innate behavior and experience
			35.6 Connection: Imprinting poses problems and opportunities for conservation programs
			35.7 Visualizing the concept: A nimal movement may be a response to stimuli or require spatial learning
			35.8 A variety of cues guide migratory movements
			35.9 Animals may learn to associate a stimulus or behavior with a response
			35.9 Social learning employs observation and imitation of others
			35.11 Problem-solving behavior relies on cognition
		Survival and reproductive success
			35.12 Behavioral ecologists use cost–benefit analysis to study foraging
			35.13 Communication is an essential element of interactions between animals
			35.14 Mating behavior often includes elaborate courtship rituals
			35.15 Mating systems and parental care enhance reproductive success
			35.16 Connection: Chemical pollutants can cause abnormal behavior
		Social behavior and sociobiology
			35.17 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
			35.18 Territorial behavior parcels out space and resources
			35.19 Agonistic behavior often resolves confrontations between competitors
			35.20 Dominance hierarchies are maintained by agonistic behavior
			35.21 Evolution Connection: Altruistic acts can often be explained by the concept of inclusive fitness
			35.22 Scientific Thinking: Jane goodall revolutionized our understanding of chimpanzee behavior
			35.23 Human behavior is the result of both genetic and environmental factors
		Chapter Review
	36 Population ecology
		Population structure and dynamics
			36.1 Population ecology is the study of how and why populations change
			36.2 Density and dispersion patterns are important population variables
			36.3 Life tables track survivorship in populations
			36.4 Idealized models predict patterns of population growth
			36.5 Multiple factors may limit population growth
			36.6 Scientific Thinking: Some populations have “boom-and-bust” cycles
			36.7 Evolution Connection: Evolution shapes life histories
			36.8 Connection: Principles of population ecology have practical applications
		The human population
			36.9 The human population continues to increase, but the growth rate is slowing
			36.10 Age structures reveal social and economic trends
			36.11 An ecological footprint is a measure of resource consumption
		Chapter Review
	37 Communities and ecosystems
		Community structure and dynamics
			37.1 A community includes all the organisms inhabiting a particular area
			37.2 Interspecific interactions are fundamental to community structure
			37.3 Competition may occur when a shared resource is limited
			37.4 Mutualism benefits both partners
			37.5 Evolution Connection: Predation leads to diverse adaptations in prey species
			37.6 Evolution Connection: Herbivory leads to diverse adaptations in plants
			37.7 Parasites and pathogens can affect community composition
			37.8 Trophic structure is a key factor in community dynamics
			37.9 Visualizing the concept: Food chains interconnect, forming food webs
			37.10 Species diversity includes species richness and relative abundance
			37.11 Scientific Thinking: Some species have a disproportionate impact on diversity
			37.12 Disturbance is a prominent feature of most communities
			37.13 Connection: Invasive species can devastate communities
		Ecosystem structure and dynamics
			37.14 Ecosystem ecology emphasizes energy flow and chemical cycling
			37.15 Primary production sets the energy budget for ecosystems
			37.16 Energy supply limits the length of food chains
			37.17 Connection: An energy pyramid explains the ecological cost of meat
			37.18 Chemicals are cycled between organic matter and abiotic reservoirs
			37.19 The carbon cycle depends on photosynthesis and respiration
			37.20 The phosphorus cycle depends on the weathering of rock
			37.21 The nitrogen cycle depends on bacteria
			37.22 A rapid inflow of nutrients degrades aquatic ecosystems
			37.23 Connection: Ecosystem services are essential to human well-being
		Chapter Review
	38 Conservation biology
		The loss of biodiversity
			38.1 Loss of biodiversity includes the loss of ecosystems, species, and genes
			38.2 Connection: Habitat loss, invasive species, overharvesting, pollution, and climate change are major threats to biodiversity
			38.3 Connection: Rapid warming is changing the global climate
			38.4 Human activities are responsible for rising concentrations of greenhouse gases
			38.5 Climate change affects biomes, ecosystems, communities, and populations
			Evolution Connection: Climate change is an agent of natural selection
		Conservation biology and restoration ecology
			38.7 Protecting endangered populations is one goal of conservation biology
			38.8 Sustaining ecosystems and landscapes is a conservation priority
			38.9 Establishing protected areas slows the loss of biodiversity
			38.10 Zoned reserves are an attempt to reverse ecosystem disruption
			38.11 Scientific Thinking: The yellowstone to yukon conservation initiative seeks to preserve biodiversity by connecting protected areas
			38.12 Connection: The study of how to restore degraded habitats is a developing science
			38.13 Sustainable development is an ultimate goal
		Chapter Review
Appendix 1 Metric conversion table
Appendix 2 The periodic table
Appendix 3 The amino acids of proteins
Appendix 4 Chapter review answers
Appendix 5 Credits
Glossary
Index