Bryophyta

Title
Contents
1 Introduction
	1.1 What are Bryophytes?
	1.2 How do Recent Systematists Treat the Terms “Bryophyta”, “Bryophytes” and “Bryobiotina”?
	1.3 Why are Bryophytes Always Small-Sized and Lack True Leaves?
	1.4 Why do Bryophytes Possess Rhizoids Instead of Roots?
	1.5 Number of Species and Gene-Bank Database
	1.6 Age of Bryophytes
	1.7 Occurrence and Distribution
	1.8 Gametophyte (Plant Body)
	1.9 Vegetative Reproduction
	1.10 Sexual Reproduction
	1.11 Sporophyte
	1.12 Young Gametophyte
	1.13 Life-Cycle (Alternation of Generations)
	1.14 A Note on Regeneration in Bryophytes
	1.15 Salient Features of Bryophytes: At a Glance
	1.16 Affinities of Bryophytes
	1.17 Origin of Bryophytes
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2 Classification
	2.1 Classification
	2.2 Major Differences Between Classes of Bryophyta
	2.3 Latest Position of Classification of Bryophytes
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3 Hepaticopsida: Takakiales and Calobryales
	3.1 What are Hepaticopsida (= Liverworts)?
	3.2 Why are They Called Liverworts or Hepaticopsida?
	3.3 General Characteristics
	3.4 Classification of Hepaticopsida
	3.5 Takakiales
	3.6 Takakia
	3.7 Calobryales
	3.8 Calobryum and Haplomitrium
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4 Hepaticopsida (Jungermanniales)
	4.1 General Characteristics
	4.2 Classification
	4.3 Sub-Order Jungermannineae (Jungermanniales Acrogynae)
	4.4 Porellaceae
	4.5 Porella
	4.6 Frullaniaceae
	4.7 Frullania
	4.8 Sub-Order Metzgerineae (Jungermanniales Anacrogynae)
	4.9 Pelliaceae
	4.10 Pellia
	4.11 Riccardiaceae
	4.12 Riccardia
	4.13 Fossombroniaceae
	4.14 Fossombronia
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5 Hepaticopsida (Sphaerocarpales)
	5.1 Sphaerocarpales and their General Characteristics
	5.2 Sphaerocarpos
	5.3 Riella
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6 Hepaticopsida (Monocleales)
	6.1 What are Monocleales?
	6.2 General Characteristics of Monocleales
	6.3 Monoclea
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7 Hepaticopsida (Marchantiales)
	7.1 Limits of Marchantiales?
	7.2 Common Genera
	7.3 General Characteristics
	7.4 Classification
	7.5 Ricciaceae
	7.6 Riccia
	7.7 Marchantia
	7.8 Comparison of Sporogonium of Riccia and Marchantia
	7.9 Origin and Evolution of Marchantiaceous Thallus
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8 Anthoceropsida
	8.1 What is Anthoceropsida?
	8.2 General Characteristics
	8.3 Classification
	8.4 Anthocerotaceae
	8.5 Anthoceros
	8.6 Apospory in Anthoceros
	8.7 Notothylaceae
	8.8 Notothylas
	8.9 Biological Importance of the Sporophyte of Anthoceros
	8.10 Affinities of Anthocerotales
	8.11 Difference between Anthocerotopsida and Hepaticopsida
	8.12 A Note on the Origin of Anthocerotales
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9 Bryopsida (General Account)
	9.1 What is Bryopsida?
	9.2 General Characteristics
	9.3 Classification
	9.4 Distribution and Habitat
	9.5 Habit
	9.6 Vegetative or Asexual Reproduction
	9.7 Apospory in Mosses
	9.8 Sex Organs
	9.9 Resemblances and Differences between Hepaticopsida (Liverworts) and Bryopsida (Mosses)
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10 Bryopsida (Selected Mosses)
	10.1 Sphagnales or Bog Mosses
	10.2 Sphagnum
	10.3 Affinities of Sphagnum
	10.4 Andreaeales
	10.5 Andreaea
	10.6 Bryales
	10.7 Funaria
	10.8 Buxbaumia: A Botanical Note
	10.9 Tetraphis: A Botanical Note
	10.10 Archidium: A Botanical Note
	10.11 Pogonatum: A Botanical Note
	10.12 Polytrichum
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11 Gametophyte of Bryophytes
	11.1 What is a Gametophyte?
	11.2 External Form of Mature Gametophyte
	11.3 Thalloid Forms of Gametophyte
	11.4 Leafy Forms of Gametophyte
	11.5 Appendages Found on the Gametophyte
	11.6 Internal Form of Mature Gametophyte
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12 Sporophyte of Bryophytes
	12.1 What is a Sporophyte and a Spore?
	12.2 How is the Sporophyte Different from the Sporogonium?
	12.3 Bryophytic Sporophyte: A Body Dependent on Gametophyte
	12.4 Structure of Sporophyte
	12.5 Development and Differentiation of Different Organs of Sporophyte
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13 Spore Germination and Formation of Gametophyte
	13.1 What is Technically a Spore?
	13.2 Are Bryophytes Homosporous or Heterosporous?
	13.3 Size and Output of Spores
	13.4 Structure of Spores of Bryophytes
	13.5 Spore Germination and Formation of Gametophyte in Liverworts (Hepaticopsida)
	13.6 Spore Germination and Formation of Gametophyte in Hornworts (Anthoceropsida)
	13.7 Spore Germination and Formation of Gametophyte in Mosses (Bryopsida)
	13.8 Spore Viability
	13.9 Polarity in Spore Germination
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14 Factors Affecting Sexuality in Bryophytes
	14.1 Major Factors Affecting Sexuality
	14.2 Influence of Photoperiod on Sexuality
	14.3 Influence of Temperature on Sexuality
	14.4 Influence of Carbohydrates on Sexuality
	14.5 Influence of Nitrogenous Substances on Sexuality
	14.6 Influence of pH and Hydration of Medium on Sexuality
	14.7 Influence of Growth Regulators on Sexuality
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15 Alternation of Generations
	15.1 What is Alternation of Generations?
	15.2 Who Discovered Alternation of Generations in Archegoniatae?
	15.3 What are Antithetic Alternation and Homologous Alternation of Generations?
	15.4 Phenomena of Apogamy and Apospory
	15.5 Antithetic Theory
	15.6 Final Picture about Nature and Evolution of Primitive Sporophyte
	15.7 Homologous Theory
	15.8 Genetical and Ontogenetic Views on Alternation of Generations
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16 Phylogeny of Bryophytes: Role of Genosystematics
	16.1 Current Status of Molecular Studies on Bryophyte Phylogeny
	16.2 Bryophytes and Genosystematics Studies
	16.3 Macrosystematics and Origin of Bryophytes
	16.4 Marchantiophyta or Liverworts
	16.5 Anthocerotopsida or Hornworts
	16.6 Bryophyta or Mosses
	16.7 Major Roles of Molecular Phylogenetics
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17 Morphogenesis
	17.1 What is Morphogenesis?
	17.2 Limits of Morphogenetic Studies in Bryophytes
	17.3 Germination of Spore
	17.4 Initiation of Bud and its Growth into Gametophyte
	17.5 Physiology of Sex Expression
	17.6 Growth of Diploid Sporophyte
	17.7 Vegetative Propagation
	17.8 Metabolism
	17.9 Senescence
	17.10 Physiology of Rhizoid Formation
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18 Vegetative Reproduction and Regeneration in Bryophytes
	18.1 Difference between Vegetative Reproduction and Regeneration
	18.2 Methods of Vegetative Reproduction in Bryophytes
	18.3 Botanical Note on Regeneration in Bryophytes
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19 Origin and Fate of Archesporium in Bryophytes
	19.1 What is Archesporium?
	19.2 Products of Archesporium
	19.3 Fundamental Embryonic Layers of Capsule
	19.4 Origin, Position and Fate of Archesporium in Some Selected Genera
	19.5 A Note on the Origin of Elaters
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20 Apogamy and Apospory in Bryophytes
	20.1 Apogamy and Apospory: Two Alternative Pathways of Life Cycle
	20.2 Why are the Phenomena of Apogamy and Apospory of Considerable Interest?
	20.3 Apogamy
	20.4 Apospory
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21 Physiology of Bryophytes
	21.1 Water Relations
	21.2 Growth Forms in Bryophytes
	21.3 Water-Holding Capacity of Bryophytes
	21.4 Photosynthesis
	21.5 Nitrogen Metabolism
	21.6 Respiration
	21.7 Enzymes
	21.8 Organic Acids
	21.9 Movements
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22 Chemical Constituents of Bryophytes
	22.1 Antibiotics
	22.2 Growth Substances
	22.3 Lipids
	22.4 Alkanes
	22.5 Fatty Acids
	22.6 Terpenoids
	22.7 Flavonoids
	22.8 Lignins
	22.9 Carotenoids
	22.10 Carbohydrates
	22.11 Organic Acids
	22.12 Enzymes
	22.13 Amino Acids
	22.14 Allergenic and Anti-Tumour Activities
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23 Bryophytes as Indicators of Environmental Conditions and Pollution
	23.1 Indicator Species of Bryophytes
	23.2 Erosion Control by Bryophytes
	23.3 Nitrogen Fixation
	23.4 Bryometer or Moss Bag
	23.5 SO2 and Acid Rain
	23.6 Bryophytes as Bioindicators of Heavy Metals in Air Pollution
	23.7 Copper Mosses as Indicators of Copper Concentration
	23.8 Bryophytes as Bioindicators of Some Other Air Pollutants
	23.9 Bryophytes as Indicators of UV-B Radiation
	23.10 Bryophytes as Indicators of Radioactivity
	23.11 Bryophytes as Indicators in Aquatic Habitats
	23.12 Bryophytes as Cleaning Agents of Toxic Waste
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24 Biologically Active Compounds from Bryophytes
	24.1 What are Biologically Active Compounds?
	24.2 Some Biologically Active Compounds Extracted from Bryophytes
	24.3 Characteristics of Biologically Active Compounds Isolated from Bryophytes
	24.4 Characteristic Scents
	24.5 Pungency and Bitterness
	24.6 Dermatitis
	24.7 Cytotoxic, Anti-HIV-1, and DNA Polymerase B-Inhibitory Activity
	24.8 Antifungal and Antimicrobial Activity
	24.9 Insect Antifeedant, Mortality and Nematocidal Activity
	24.10 Superoxide Anion Radical Release Inhibitory Activity
	24.11 Enzymes and Nitric Oxide Production Inhibitory Activity
	24.12 Pesticidal and Plant-Growth Inhibitory Activity
	24.13 Neurotrophic Activity
	24.14 Muscle-Relaxing Activity
	24.15 Inhibitory Activity Against Osteoporosis and Allergy
	24.16 Cardiotonic and Vasopressin Antagonist Activity
	24.17 Antiobesity Activity
	24.18 Synthesis of Some Bioactive Compounds from Constituents of Liverworts
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25 Bryophytes and Their Role in Carbon and Nitrogen Cycling
	25.1 Role of Plants in Regulating Biogeochemical Cycles
	25.2 Do Bryophytes have the Same Role as Vascular Plants in Regulating Biogeochemical Cycles?
	25.3 How do Bryophytes Influence Ecosystem Functions?
	25.4 Major Roles of Bryophytes in C- and N-Cycling
	25.5 Ability of Bryophytes to Influence Local Soil Climates
	25.6 Role of Bryophytes in Carbon Cycling
	25.7 Role of Bryophytes in Nitrogen Cycling
	25.8 What More can be Done in Understanding Role of Bryophytes in C and N Cycling?
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26 Evolution of the Gametophyte in Bryophytes
	26.1 Views on the Evolution of the Gametophyte in Bryophytes
	26.2 Mechanism of Retrogressive Evolution
	26.3 Theory of Progressive Evolution
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27 Origin and Evolution of Sporophyte in Bryophytes
	27.1 What is Evolution of the Sporophyte in Bryophytes?
	27.2 Theory of Progressive Sterilization of Potentially Sporogenous Tissue
	27.3 Theory of Progressive Simplification
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28 Conduction in Bryophytes
	28.1 How do Bryophytes Maintain Poor Internal Conducting Strands?
	28.2 External Conduction and its Significance
	28.3 Internal Conduction and its Significance
	28.4 Anatomy of Midrib and Leaf Traces
	28.5 Similarities and Differences Between Hydroids of Bryophytes and Tracheary Elements of Primitive Vascular Plants
	28.6 Similarities and Differences Between Leptoids of Polytrichales and Sieve Elements of Vascular Plants
	28.7 Internal Conduction of Water by Gametophyte
	28.8 Internal Conduction of Water by Sporophyte
	28.9 Conduction of Organic Compounds in Bryophytes
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29 Elementary Cytogenetics and Cytotaxonomy of Bryophytes
	29.1 Some Basic Techniques of Cytogenetics
	29.2 Some Studies on Mitosis
	29.3 Some Studies on Meiosis
	29.4 Heterochromatin
	29.5 Chromosome Number
	29.6 Extra Chromosomes and Sex-Associated Chromosomes
	29.7 Hybridization
	29.8 Polyploidy
	29.9 Cytotaxonomy
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30 Ecology of Bryophytes
	30.1 Views of Johannes et al. (2007) on Ecology of Bryophytes
	30.2 Limits of Ecology of Bryophytes
	30.3 Autecology
	30.4 Synecology
	30.5 Succession
	30.6 Factors of the Habitat
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31 Origin of Bryophytes and Their Fossil History
	31.1 Origin of Bryophytes
	31.2 A Note on the Monophyletic or Polyphyletic Nature of Bryophytes
	31.3 Origin of Bryophytes from Pteridophytes
	31.4 Origin of Bryophytes from Algae
	31.5 Fossil History of Bryophytes
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32 Economic Importance of Bryophytes
	32.1 Utility of Bryophytes: A General Overview
	32.2 Ecological Uses of Bryophytes
	32.3 Medicinal Uses of Bryophytes
	32.4 Bryophytes as Food Source
	32.5 Horticultural Uses of Bryophytes
	32.6 Household Uses of Bryophytes
	32.7 House Construction
	32.8 Moss Industry
	32.9 Fuel from Bryophytes
	32.10 Pesticides from Bryophytes
	32.11 Clothing from Bryophytes
	32.12 Bryophytes Used for Culturing
	32.13 Bryophytes as Seed Beds
	32.14 Moss Gardens
	32.15 Bryophytes and Genetic Engineering
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