Breaking Through the Glass Ceiling: Women in Management

Preface......Page 3
CONTENTS......Page 5
Acknowledgements......Page 11
List of Abbreviations......Page 13
Introduction......Page 15
Women's increasing participation in the labour force......Page 16
Figure 1.1 Women's economic acticvity rates, age 20-54......Page 17
Women's jobs in flexible labour markets......Page 18
Figure 1.3 Economic activity rates by sex and age group......Page 19
Figure 1.4 Women's share in the labour force, 1970-2010......Page 20
Figure 1.5 Proportion of part-time workers, 1996-97......Page 21
Figure 1.6 Involuntary part-time work as a percentage of total employment, 1993.95......Page 23
Men's jobs, women's jobs: Occupational segregation......Page 24
Table 1.2 Changes in occupational segregation in the US, 1974-94......Page 25
Figure 1.7 Women's percentage share in financing, insurance, real estate, business services......Page 26
Closing the pay gap......Page 27
Figure 1.8 Women's gross hourly wages as a percentage of men's, 1995, Europe......Page 28
Reconciling work and family......Page 30
Figure 1.9 Mean annual earnings of university-educated women......Page 31
Figure 1.10 International comparison of wage differentials and share of housework......Page 33
Gender equality in society: Social and economic indicators......Page 34
Notes......Page 35
Introduction......Page 39
Figure 2.1 The glass ceiling in the organizational pyramid......Page 40
Statistical issues involved in classifying professional and managerial employees......Page 41
Women in professional jobs......Page 42
Women in managerial jobs: The figures......Page 43
Figure 2.2 Women's share of professional work, 1993-95 and 1997-98......Page 44
Figure 2.3 Percentage of people employed in legislative, senior official and managerial positions, 1998......Page 45
Figure 2.4 Women's percentage share of legislators, senior officials and manager, 1998-99......Page 46
Figure 2.5 Women's percentage share of administrative and managerial positions, 1997-98......Page 48
Uneven and slow progress for women in management......Page 49
Figure 2.6 Women's percentage share of legislators, senior officials and managers, 1993-95 and 1997-98......Page 50
Women at the top......Page 52
Figure 2.7 Brazil: Women's percentage share of senior executive positions in major corporations, 1990......Page 54
Women managers in the financial, business and banking sectors......Page 56
Table 2.2 Share of women at decision-making level in EU ministries of finance, 1994-95......Page 57
Women managers in the public service......Page 58
"Glass walls"......Page 59
Table 2.3 Percentage of men in male-dominated managerial and professional occupations......Page 60
Women in politics......Page 61
Figure 2.9 The glass ceiling and glass walls in the organizational pyramid......Page 62
Earnings gaps between female and male managers......Page 63
Table 2.4 Women in committees of the European parliament: parliamentary term 1999-2004......Page 64
Figure 2.11 Percentage of government positions occupied by women, 1996......Page 65
Obstacles to breaking through the glass ceiling......Page 66
Table 2.5 Obstacles to the recruitment and promotion of women to junior, middle and senior management positions in Europe......Page 67
Figure 2.12 Percentage of women employers, 1989-91 and 1997-98......Page 69
Conclusion......Page 70
Notes......Page 71
Introduction......Page 75
The improved educational achievements of young women......Page 76
Figure 3.1 Overall number of female graduates per 100 male graduates at upper-secondary level in selected EU Member States, 1......Page 77
Figure 3.2 Female graduates per 100 male graduates at upper-secondary level in selected EU Member States (general education),......Page 78
Figure 3.3 Female graduates per 100 male graduates at upper-secondary level in selected EU Member States (vocational educatio......Page 79
Table 3.1 Women's percentage share of enrolment at third-level institutions, 1985 and 1996 (least-developed, developing and d......Page 80
Figure 3.6 Percentage of degrees awarded to women by subject area, 1990 and 1996 (US)......Page 81
Figure 3.7 Number of science graduates per 100,000 individuals in the labour force, men and women aged 25-34, 1995 (OECD coun......Page 82
New gender choices in careers......Page 84
Figure 3.8 Percentage of university-level qualifications in different subject categories by sex, 1996 (OECD countries)......Page 85
Figure 3.9 Percentage of non-university qualifications in different subject categories by sex, 1996 (OECD countries)......Page 91
Figure 3.10 Percentage of women engineering students attendning third-lecel institutions, 1990-91 and 1995-97......Page 98
Figure 3.11 Percentage of primary degrees (ISCED 6) in maths and computer science awarded to women, 1996-97......Page 99
Eliminating sex-role stereotyping in educational curricula......Page 100
Figure 3.12 Percentage of postgraduate degrees (ISCED 7) in maths and computer science awarded to women, 1996-97......Page 101
Figure 3.13 Percentage of female business and administration students in third-level education (ISCED 7), 1990-91 and 1995-97......Page 102
Awareness-raising on educational choices......Page 104
Promoting gender equality in the teaching profession......Page 107
Table 3.2 Women as a percentage of total staff and student bodies in third-level institutions, 1995-97......Page 108
Conclusion......Page 110
Notes......Page 111
Introduction......Page 113
Gender differences in career paths......Page 114
Box 4.1 Some typical characteristics of the sexes......Page 115
Figure 4.1 Percentage distribution of men and women by career track, Japan......Page 116
Box 4.2 Myths associated with women in business and common reservations about hiring/promoting women......Page 117
Figure 4.2 Why is female representation so low?......Page 118
Table 4.1 Factors suggested by women in Europe for improving women's recruitment at different management levels......Page 119
Getting over the recruitment hurdle......Page 120
Figure 4.3 Executives' perceptions of women's opportunities in entry-level jobs in selected Asian countries and territories,......Page 121
Promotion opportunities......Page 122
Box 4.3 Making procedures gender-neutral......Page 124
The right training......Page 125
Job design and work organization......Page 127
Balancing professional and family responsibilities......Page 128
Figure 4.4 Balancing career and personal life, United States: How women executives do it......Page 129
Combating sexual harassment......Page 131
Box 4.4 Sexual harassment policy statement of the Prudential Insurance Company of America......Page 132
Equal employment opportunity policies......Page 133
Achieving targets: Positive action......Page 134
Diversity management......Page 135
Table 4.2 Diversity management and equal opportunities: Different approaches......Page 137
Figure 4.6 Awareness-based diversity-training model......Page 138
Total E-quality......Page 139
Human resource information: The need for benchmarking......Page 140
Networking......Page 141
Mentoring......Page 142
Box 4.6 Making a mentoring programme successful......Page 143
A comprehensive approach......Page 144
Box 4.8 Example of a comprehensive affirmative action programme......Page 145
Box 4.9 Key actions for genuine commitment......Page 147
Conclusion......Page 148
Notes......Page 149
National policies and programmes......Page 153
Promoting positive action......Page 155
Box 5.1 The Berlin Anti-Discrimination (Public Sector) Act, 1991......Page 156
Programmes addressing the glass ceiling......Page 157
The role of the social partners......Page 158
Women networking......Page 160
Conclusion......Page 163
Notes......Page 164
International labour standards on women workers......Page 167
Discrimination in employment and occupation......Page 168
Equal remuneration......Page 170
Maternity protection......Page 171
From protection to equal treatment......Page 173
The UN Convention of the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women......Page 175
Beijing +5: Global High-Level Plenary Review of the Beijing Platform for Action......Page 176
"More and Better Jobs for Women"......Page 177
Mainstreaming gender issues......Page 178
Women in management......Page 179
Gender equality and employers' organizations......Page 180
Table 6.1 Women on the governing bodies of selected business or employers' organizations,(Latin America), latest year......Page 181
How employers and their organizations can promote gender equality in the workplace......Page 182
Gender equality and trade unions......Page 183
Table 6.2 Women on the national governing bodies of national unions and union confederations (Latin America), latest year......Page 184
Box 6.1 Strengthening social dialogue on gender issues in the Southern Cone......Page 186
Conclusion......Page 188
Notes......Page 189
Select Bibliography......Page 191
Annex 1: Gender disparity: HDI, GDI and GEM rankings by country......Page 197