Brain, Decision Making and Mental Health

Preface
Contents
1 Introduction to Brain, Decision-Making, and Mental Health
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Thinking
		1.2 Thinking is Divided
		1.3 Critical Thinking to Bridge Divisions in Thinking
			1.3.1 Critical Thinking in Medical Sciences
			1.3.2 Critical Thinking Education
				Arts for Critical Thinking Development/Enhancement
	2 Thinking and Health: Relation, Mechanisms, and Implications
		2.1 The Impact of Thinking on Other Brain Functions
		2.2 The Role of Cortisol
		2.3 Interventions
			2.3.1 Mindfulness
			2.3.2 Technologies and Artificial Intelligence
			2.3.3 Psychotherapy
	3 Decision-Making in Different Contexts
		3.1 Integrated Contexts
		3.2 Social Contexts
		3.3 Style-Outcome Relation
	4 Decision-Making Outside of a Human Mind
	5 Arts: A Means of Creative Thinking and Decision-Making
	6 Experience Before Us
		6.1 Integrated Brain and Behavior Models
		6.2 Integrated Brain Development and Multipronged Learning
		6.3 Integrated Aging and Psychology
		6.4 Integrated Brain and Biological Development and Mental Health
		6.5 Integrated Artificial Intelligence, Brain, Decision-Making, and Mental Health
		6.6 Integrated Brain Science Research and Intelligence Research
		6.7 Integrated Approach to Mental Health
			6.7.1 Integrated Biological, Psychological, Psychiatric, Social, and Spiritual Sciences
			6.7.2 Integrated Mental Health Services
			6.7.3 Integrated Mental Health Research Framework
	7 Conclusion
	References
2 Relational Thinking and the Cultural Conditionality of Human Understanding
	1 Introduction
	2 Problems of Intercultural Methodology and Frameworks of Reference
	3 Relational Epistemology
	4 Two Different Models of Structural Perception Theory: Zhang Dongsun and Bertrand Russel
	5 The Relational Nature of Internal and External Structures
	6 Perception: A Consequence of Structural Changes
	7 Conclusion: Methods of Comprehension and Semantic Transmission of Knowledge
	Acknowledgements
	References
3 Science and the Spectrum of Critical Thinking
	1 Introduction
	2 The Unity of Science
	3 Defining Rationality
	4 The Various Definitions—and Strange History—of Critical Thinking
	5 Logic is Where We Start From
	6 Other Senses of “Logic”
	7 Informal Logic: A Passing Glance at Facts and Arguments
	8 Informal Logic, Continued: The Mental Quicksand of Fallacies, Blunders, Biases, and Blind Spots
	9 Appearance and Reality
	10 The Art of Questioning
	11 Analytic (Systemic) Thinking
	12 Conclusion: Critical Thinking and Complexity
	References
4 Rhetoric and the Stases: A Universal Critical Thinking Problem-Solving Framework for the Sciences and Arts
	1 Introduction
	2 Rhetoric Considered
	3 Rhetoric in the Present Time
	4 Rhetorical Discourse
	5 Literacy Functions of Rhetoric in the Sciences and Arts
	6 The Stases
	7 Conclusion
	References
5 Conceptual Development and Change: The Role of Echoing and Contrast as Cognitive Operations
	1 Introduction
	2 Echoing
	3 Echoing and Conceptual Development and Change
		3.1 Quranic Verse (2:258)
		3.2 Quranic Verse (2:259)
		3.3 Verse (36:31)
	4 Echoes Versus Descriptions
	5 Conclusion
	References
6 Critical Thinking Across the Sciences
	1 Introduction
	2 The Relation Between Theory and Evidence: Main Critical Questions
	3 Theories of Causation and Scientific Practice
	4 Causal Inference: Critical Questions
	5 Statistical Fallacies
	6 Evidence-Based Policy and Extrapolation: Critical Questions
	7 Conclusion
	References
7 Models of Medical Reasoning
	1 Introduction
	2 General and Singular Causation
	3 Singular Causation in Medicine: Why Statistical Probability Might not Be the Right Choice
		3.1 Diagnosis
		3.2 Early Phase Clinical Trials
		3.3 Forensic Medicine
	4 Bottom-Up Reasoning
		4.1 Individual Causal Explanations as “Stories”
		4.2 Detective Stories and (Holmesian) Abduction
	5 Network Representations
	6 Structural Equation Models
	7 Normality and Similarity
	8 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
8 The “Irrational” Within Rational Thinking: Proofs from Medical Sciences and the Arts
	1 Introduction
	2 Judgment and the “Irrational”
	3 Metacognition: A Prerequisite in Medical Judgment
	4 Intuition in Medical Sciences
	5 Biases in Medical Sciences and Arts: Philosophical Bias
		5.1 Philosophical Biases in Medical Research
		5.2 Biases in Medicine as an Art
	6 The Arts, Intuition, and Judgement
	7 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
9 Shaping Clinical Reasoning
	1 Introduction to the Concept of Clinical Reasoning
	2 The Clinical Reasoning Dimensions
	3 The Framework of the Thinking Process
	4 Biased Clinical Reasoning Fosters the Medical Error
	5 Educating for Clinical Reasoning in Health-Related Programs
	6 Nurturing Clinical Reasoning in Undergraduate Students: Where Do We Stand?
	7 How to Improve the Undergraduates’ Clinical Reasoning?
	8 How to Implement Clinical Reasoning Strategies in a Program?
	9 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
10 Critical Thinking in Nursing
	1 Introduction
	2 What is Critical Thinking?
	3 What is the Relation of Critical Thinking to Nursing, and Why Are Critical Thinking Skills Important to Nurses?
	4 Conclusion
	References
11 Fostering Critical Thinking Among Pre-service Teachers Through a Multiple Representation-Based Collaborative Pedagogical Approach
	1 Introduction
	2 Critical Thinking
		2.1 What Is Critical Thinking?
		2.2 The Core Critical Thinking Skills and Sub-Skills
			2.2.1 Interpretation
			2.2.2 Analysis
			2.2.3 Inference
			2.2.4 Evaluation
			2.2.5 Explanation
			2.2.6 Self-regulation
		2.3 Measuring Critical Thinking
		2.4 Critical Thinking in Pre-service Teacher Education
	3 The Active Microteaching Lesson Study: A Multiple Representation-Based Pedagogical Approach
		3.1 The Lesson Study (LS)
		3.2 The Active Microteaching Multiple-representation Lesson Study (MRLS) Process
			3.2.1 Identifying Learning Areas Demanding Multiple Representations
			3.2.2 Designing the Research Lesson
			3.2.3 Planning How to Investigate the Learning Process
			3.2.4 Implementing the Multiple Representations (MR)-Based Lesson Plan Through Microteaching
			3.2.5 Discussing the Results of the First Implementation
			3.2.6 Revising the MR-Based Lesson Plan
			3.2.7 Carrying Out the Revised Instructional Plan Through the Active Microteaching LS
			3.2.8 Deliberating the Outcomes of the Second Microteaching
			3.2.9 Writing the Final MR-Based Instructional Plan and Gathering Supporting Documents
			3.2.10 Sharing the Study Lesson, Findings, and Resources
	4 Considerations in Selecting Multiple Representations
		4.1 Nature of Content
		4.2 Access to Instructional Technologies
		4.3 Type, Capabilities, and Experiences of Learners
		4.4 Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) of the Pre-service Teacher
		4.5 Pre-service teacher’s Motivation to Utilize Multiple Representations
	5 The Affordances of the Active Microteaching Multiple-representation Lesson Study (MRLS) in Fostering Critical Thinking
	6 Conclusion
	References
12 COVID-19: A Context to Promote Critical Thinking and Argumentation in Secondary and University Students
	1 Introduction
	2 Background
		2.1 Defining Critical Thinking
		2.2 Socio-Scientific Issues and Argumentation as Critical Thinking
		2.3 Critical Thinking and Science Education Nowadays
		2.4 Being a “Critical Thinker” in the Pandemic Context in a Post-truth World
	3 Methods
		3.1 Study Content
			3.1.1 Case Study 1
			3.1.2 Case Study 2
		3.2 Data Analysis and Results
			3.2.1 Case Study 1
			3.2.2 Case Study 2
	4 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
13 Thinking, Feeling, and Moving: Competition for Brain Resources in Health and Disease
	1 Introduction
	2 Executive Function in Normal Human Physiology
		2.1 Inhibitory Control
		2.2 Working Memory
		2.3 Cognitive Flexibility
	3 Prefrontal Cortex and Executive Function
	4 Beyond Cognition: Introduction to Executive Function Brain Networks
	5 Prefrontal Cortex and Gait
	6 Prefrontal Cortex and Emotional Regulation
	7 The Late-Life Depression Triad: Executive Dysfunction, Impaired Gait, and Depression
	8 Normal Aging and Executive Dysfunction
	9 Frailty and Executive Dysfunction
	10 Executive Function Impairments in Alzheimer’s Disease and Dementia
	11 Disturbance in Executive Function by Stroke and Vascular Infarcts
	12 Conclusion
	References
14 Hypothesized Mechanisms of Cognitive Impairment During High-Intensity Acute Exercise
	1 Introduction
	2 Introduction to the Concept of the Transient Hypofrontality Theory
	3 Evaluation of the Transient Hypofrontality Theory in the Context of Acute Exercise
		3.1 Improvement Effect of In-Task Acute Exercise on Cognitive Measures
		3.2 Impairment Effect of In-Task Acute Exercise on Cognitive Measures
	4 Potential Mechanisms Through Which Cognition May Be Impaired During High-Intensity Acute Exercise
		4.1 Cerebral Blood Flow
		4.2 Neurotransmitters
		4.3 Psychological Attention
	5 Conclusion
	References
15 The Role of Cortisol in Cognitive Emotion Regulation Failure
	1 Introduction
	2 Cortisol
	3 Cortisol and Cognitive Function
		3.1 Executive Function
		3.2 Memory
		3.3 Attention
	4 Cortisol and Reappraisal
	5 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
16 Incorporating Mindfulness Practice for Better Performance in Work and Daily Life
	1 Introduction
	2 What is Mindfulness?
	3 Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction Program: The Revolution Begins
	4 Mindfulness to Improve the Performance in the Workplace
	5 Mindfulness Practices in Health Care Professionals
	6 Mindfulness in Educational Settings
	7 Mindfulness and Sports Practice
	8 Mindfulness and Artistic Performance
		8.1 The Art Performance
	9 Meditation and Health Biomarkers
	10 How to Learn Mindfulness?
	11 Conclusion
	References
17 Increasing Well-Being and Mental Health Through Cutting-Edge Technology and Artificial Intelligence
	1 Introduction
	2 Current Digital Mental Health Interventions and Their Drawbacks
		2.1 Computerized and Web-Based Interventions
		2.2 mHealth Interventions
		2.3 Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Therapy
		2.4 Serious Games
			2.4.1 The Movement-Based Games or VR Games
			2.4.2 Cognitive Behavior Therapy-Based Games
			2.4.3 Biofeedback-Based Games
			2.4.4 Cognitive Training Games
	3 The Future of the Digital Mental Health Interventions
		3.1 Conversational Agents
		3.2 Sensors and Integrated Systems
		3.3 Big Data
	4 Preventive Prospects and Digital Phenotyping
	5 Ongoing Cutting-Edge Research and Funding
	6 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
18 Thought Content and Thinking Processes in Psychotherapy: Cognitive Versus Metacognitive Approaches
	1 Introduction
	2 Cognitive Therapy
		2.1 Historical Background
		2.2 Case Conceptualization
			2.2.1 Cognitive Theory: Basic Concepts
				Automatic Thoughts
				Intermediate Beliefs
				Core Beliefs
			2.2.2 Cognitive Theory: Formulation
				Case Formulation
				Generic Formulation
				Situational Formulation
		2.3 Therapeutic Intervention Techniques
			2.3.1 Detecting Automatic Thoughts
				Access to Automatic Thoughts with Direct Questions:
				Socratic Questioning and Guided Discovery
				Worst Scenario Technique
				Keeping a Record of Thoughts
			2.3.2 Evaluation of Automatic Thoughts
				Examining the Evidence
				Examining and Challenging Cognitive Distortions
				Cost-Benefit Analyses
			2.3.3 Changing Automatic Thoughts: Cognitive Restructuring
		2.4 Evidence Base
	3 Metacognitive Therapy
		3.1 Historical Background
		3.2 Case Conceptualization
		3.3 Therapeutic intervention Techniques
			3.3.1 Motivation Enhancement and Engagement
			3.3.2 Meta-Level Discourse
			3.3.3 Socialization to the Model and Treatment
			3.3.4 Detached Mindfulness
			3.3.5 Attention Training and Threat Monitoring Modification
			3.3.6 Worry/Rumination Postponement
			3.3.7 Behavioral Experiments
			3.3.8 Challenging and Modifying Metacognitive Beliefs
			3.3.9 Relapse Prevention
		3.4 Evidence Base
	4 Commonalities and Distinctive Features
	5 Conclusion
	References
19 Can the Phylogeny of Compassion Focused Therapy and the Ontogeny of Transactional Analysis Go Beyond Dual-Process Theories and Propose Multiple Modes of Thinking?
	1 Introduction
	2 The Problem of Self-regulating Thoughts in Metacognition
	3 Phylogenetic and Ontogenetic Multiple Minds
		3.1 System 1 and the Threat Mode
		3.2 What is the Worst that Could Happen, Mr. System 1?
		3.3 The Drive, the Child, and the Parent Mode
		3.4 The Soothing-Affiliative System, the Reflective Adult, and Metacognitive Awareness
	4 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
20 Decision-Making in Integrated Contexts: Epistemological, Methodological and Cognitive Choices—Towards New Requirements in Psychological Research?
	1 Introduction
	2 Reference Points: Theories, Concepts, and Tools
		2.1 General observations
		2.2 Constructivism
		2.3 Behaviors and Conducts
		2.4 The Paradigm
	3 Uncertainty and Its Modes of Evaluation
		3.1 The Formal Way
		3.2 The Cognitive Way
	4 A Cognitive Option: The Lens Model
		4.1 The Value of Information
		4.2 The Lens Model: Structure and Functioning
		4.3 Evaluating the Cognitive Activity of the Decider and the Characteristics of the Patient
		4.4 Comments
	5 Kurt Lewin and the Lessons of Gestalt Psychology
		5.1 Holism
		5.2 New Concepts
		5.3 A Holistic Context
	6 Changes of Format, Epistemology, and Methods in Decision Making
		6.1 A New Format for Studying Decisions
		6.2 Lessons of the Shipwreck of the Oil-Tanker Prestige
		6.3 An Unsuitable Paradigm?
	7 Dynamic Systems
		7.1 Definition
		7.2 A New Epistemological Position of the Decider
		7.3 Engineer or Interpreter?
		7.4 Gains and Losses
		7.5 The Apparent Loss of Determinism
		7.6 The Effective Loss of Linearity
	8 The Enhancement of Human Capacities
		8.1 Conceptual and Substantive
		8.2 Enhanced Cognition
		8.3 The Cognitive Aspect of Entropy
	9 Integrated Contexts and Systems
		9.1 The Notion of an Integrated Context
		9.2 Contextual Integration and Disciplinary Integration
		9.3 Structural and Dynamic Characteristics
		9.4 An Integrated Context in the Social Sciences: Cognitive Archaeology
		9.5 Moments of Rupture and Acquisitions
		9.6 Comments
	10 Conclusion
	References
21 Modelling Social Action: From Biological to Social (Re)Constructions Enabling, Constraining, and Motivating Social Decision-Making
	1 Introduction
	2 A Critical Realist Approach to Social Decision-Making and Action
	3 Structuring Social Action
		3.1 Somatic Dispositions to Act and Their Social Reconstructions
		3.2 Social Dispositions to Act and Their Embodiment
		3.3 Reflexivity and Social Action
	4 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
22 Decision-Making Styles and Decision Outcomes
	1 Introduction
	2 Decision-Making Styles
	3 Decision Outcomes
	4 Decision-Making Styles and Objective Decision Outcomes
	5 Decision-Making Styles and Subjective Evaluation of Decision Outcomes
	6 Decision-Making Styles and Mental Health
	7 How Are Decision-Making Styles Connected to Decision Outcomes?
	8 Future Directions
	9 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
23 Thinking About Decisions: How Human Variability Influences Decision-Making
	1 Introduction
	2 Does More Thinking Improve Decision-Making?
	3 Thinking and Individual Differences
	4 Age and Decisions
		4.1 Task Complexity
		4.2 Experience
		4.3 Motivation
	5 Cognition and Decisions
		5.1 Emotion
		5.2 Cognitive Ability
		5.3 Framing Effects
	6 Current Research from Our Labs
		6.1 Group Research
		6.2 Sleep and Circadian Rhythm Match
		6.3 Glucose and Need-For-Cognition
	7 An Interactive Thinking Approach
	8 Conclusion
	References
24 Searching for Criteria for a Thinking Machine
	1 Introduction
	2 A Solution to the Problem
	3 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
25 The Irreducible Immateriality of Meaning and Its Crucial Role for Artificial, Human, and (Maybe) Non-human Intelligence
	1 Introduction
	2 A New Perspective from the Gödel’s Theorem
	3 Warning: Your Computer Is Not a Computer!
	4 The Immateriality of Meaning
	5 Mystery Versus Problems
	6 The Imitation Game and What Makes It Possible
	7 A Lesson from ET
	8 Conclusion
	References
26 Computational Model of the Mind: How to Think About Complex Systems in Nature
	1 Introduction
	2 Master Guidelines in the Computational Study of Evolutionary Systems
	3 Brain, Neural Activity, and Behavior: Analysis of the Motion of the C-Elegans
	4 Computation Without a Brain: Sunflower, Fibonacci Sequence, and Golden Ratio
	5 Complex Systems Ruled by Simple Norms: Pandemics and Policies of Confinement and Social Distancing
	6 Conclusion
	References
27 The Brain as a Vision and Program: From “Embodiment” to “Embedment”
	1 Introduction
	2 Performance, Action, and Emergence
	3 Interactors─Enactivism─Computation
	4 Neurocognitive Sciences and the Drama of the Incarnation
	5 Conclusion
	References
28 Image, Imagination, Magic, Imaginary: Contemporary Experience and Cognition
	1 Introduction: The Challenge of Images
	2 The Landscape of Image Deluge
	3 A Materialist Concept of Image
	4 From Images to Imagination
	5 Imaginary: The Consciousness Arrow Flipped
	6 From Imagination to Cognition
	7 Final (Un)Iconoclastic Remarks
	8 Conclusion
	References
29 Neurodesign: The Biology, Psychology, and Engineering of Creative Thinking and Innovation
	1 Introduction
	2 Creative Products
	3 Bodily Perspectives on Creative Products
	4 Engineering Perspective on Creative Products
	5 Creative Processes
		5.1 Bodily Perspectives on Creative Processes
		5.2 Engineering Perspectives on Creative Processes
	6 Creative People
		6.1 Bodily Perspectives on Creative People
		6.2 Engineering Perspectives on Creative People
	7 Creative Places
		7.1 Bodily Perspectives on Creative Places
		7.2 Engineering Perspectives on Creative Places
	8 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
30 Intellectual Mechanisms of Solving of Problematic Situations with a High Degree of Uncertainty
	1 Introduction
	2 The Problematic Situations with a High Degree of Uncertainty: Concept and Structure
	3 The Mechanisms of Dialectical Transformation of Contradictions
		3.1 Transformation
			3.1.1 Mediation
			3.1.2 Dissociation
			3.1.3 The Change of Alternatives
				“Heroes in the City”: A Psychological Diagnostic Technique for Thinking Mechanisms of Solving Problematic Situations with a High Degree of Uncertainty
				Situation 1
				Interpretation of Answers
	4 Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
31 Art in the Twilight of Consciousness
	1 Introduction: Neurological Disorders and Artistic Creativity
	2 Art Beyond Explicit Consciousness
	3 New Artistic Interpretations
	4 Fringe Experience, Art-Making, and Artistic Experiences
	5 The Fringe as a Means to Achieve Artistic Creativity?
	6 Conclusion
	References
32 Brain, Decision-Making, and Mental Health 2050
	1 Introduction
	2 Clinical Psychology and Psychophysiology
		2.1 Psychotherapy
		2.2 Mindfulness
		2.3 Exercise
	3 Artificial Intelligence (AI)
		3.1 AI Devices
		3.2 AI and Education
		3.3 AI and Medical Decision-Making
		3.4 AI to Help Age at Home
		3.5 Ethical and Sustainable AI-Based Technologies
			3.5.1 Nothing Can Replace Touch
			3.5.2 AI Can Become More Friendly
	4 Philosophy
	5 Education
		5.1 Critical Thinking
		5.2 Computational Thinking
	6 Integrated Fields of Brain Sciences
		6.1 Brain-Ology
		6.2 Neuroscience
		6.3 Neurodesign
		6.4 Cognitive Linguistics
		6.5 Decision Science
			6.5.1 Decision-Making in Complex and Dynamic Systems
			6.5.2 Social Decision-Making and Action
			6.5.3 Decision-Making Styles and Decision Outcomes
		6.6 Rhetorics
		6.7 Medical Humanities
	7 Conclusion
	References
Index