Bone Mechanics Handbook, Second Edition

Preface......Page 8
Advisory Board......Page 10
Contents......Page 12
I......Page 16
1.1 Introduction......Page 18
1.2 Morphology: Macroscopic and Microscopic Structures......Page 19
1.3 Skeletal Development1,2......Page 41
1.4 Development of a Typical Long Bone1......Page 50
1.5 Skeletal Mass and Its Changes2,59......Page 51
Dedication......Page 72
Acknowledgments......Page 73
2.2 Bone Cells and Their Lineages......Page 86
2.3 Bone Cell Properties and Functions......Page 87
2.4 Bone Cell Life Cycles and Their Regulation......Page 91
2.5 Regulators of Bone Cell Function......Page 94
2.6 In Vitro Systems to Study Bone Cells178–181......Page 99
3.1 Introduction......Page 110
3.2 Examination of Known (Previously Identified) Genes......Page 111
3.3 Gene Discovery......Page 117
3.4 Gene Transfer......Page 119
3.6 Summary......Page 122
Acknowledgments......Page 123
4.1 Introduction......Page 128
4.2 Construction of Conventional Transgenic Mice......Page 129
4.3 Construction of Gene-Targeted or Knockout Mice......Page 131
4.5 Examples of Knockout Mice with Skeletal Phenotypes......Page 134
4.6 New Frontiers: Designer Mice......Page 136
4.7 Summary......Page 140
Acknowledgments......Page 141
5.1 Introduction......Page 148
5.2 Analysis of Bone Mineral......Page 149
5.3 Bone Mineral Is Not Always the Same......Page 155
5.4 Bone Mineral Formation......Page 160
II......Page 182
6.1 Introduction......Page 184
6.2 Force and Vectors......Page 185
6.3 Stresses and Matrices......Page 187
6.4. Strain......Page 191
6.5 Axial Deformation......Page 192
6.6 Hooke’s Law for Orthotropic Materials......Page 194
6.7 Stresses in a Cylindrical Shaft......Page 199
6.8 The Displacement–Strain Relations......Page 202
6.9 The Theory of Orthotropic Elasticity......Page 205
7.1 Introduction......Page 208
7.3 Bone Density and Morphology Measurements......Page 209
7.4 Mechanical Testing Methods......Page 213
7.5 Animal Models for Biomechanical Testing......Page 231
7.6 Quality Assurance......Page 233
8.1 Introduction......Page 244
8.2 The Development of Strain Gauge Procedures for Use with Bone......Page 245
8.3 Results of in Vivo Strain Gauge Experiments......Page 253
8.4 Alternative in Vivo Techniques to Measure Bone Strains......Page 277
8.5 Summary......Page 278
9.1 Introduction......Page 286
9.2 Imaging Procedures......Page 289
9.3 Structural Features Analyzed from Bone Images......Page 291
9.4 Applications......Page 300
9.5 Conclusions......Page 303
III......Page 310
10.1 Introduction......Page 312
10.2 Microstructural and Morphological Differences......Page 313
10.3 Compositional Differences......Page 315
10.4 Mechanical Properties of Cortical and Cancellous Bone Tissue......Page 316
10.5 Determinants of Cancellous Bone Tissue Modulus......Page 326
10.6 Age-Related Changes......Page 328
Acknowledgments......Page 329
11.1 Introduction: Viscoelastic Properties......Page 336
11.2 Rationale: Why Is Bone Viscoelasticity of Interest?......Page 339
11.3 Axial Properties of Bone......Page 340
11.4 Shear Properties of Bone......Page 343
11.5 Modeling......Page 344
11.6 Structure and Causal Mechanisms......Page 345
11.8 Summary......Page 347
12.1 Introduction......Page 352
12.2 Composite Materials: An Introduction to Their Mechanical Characterization......Page 354
12.3 Assessment of the Stiffness Parameters of Compact Bone......Page 357
12.4 Approaches to the Viscoelastic and Failure Properties of Compact Bone......Page 365
12.5 Interfacial Bonding between Organic and Mineral Phases......Page 367
12.6 Conclusions......Page 368
13.1 Introduction......Page 372
13.2 The Mechanical Consequences of Changes in the Collagen Template......Page 373
13.3 The Mechanical Consequences of Changes in the Mineral Phase......Page 377
13.4 The Role of Noncollagenous Proteins: Lessons from Gene-Targeted Models......Page 379
13.5 Summary......Page 382
14.1 Introduction......Page 388
14.2 Stereological Methods......Page 389
14.3 Three-Dimensional Methods......Page 394
14.4 Traditional Histomorphometry......Page 401
14.5 Ad Hoc Methods......Page 403
14.6 Concluding Remarks......Page 404
15.1 Introduction......Page 408
15.3 Cancellous Bone Mechanical Characterization......Page 409
15.4 Assessment of Cancellous Bone Elastic Constants......Page 413
15.5 The Anisotropic Elastic Properties of Cancellous Bone......Page 416
15.6 Cancellous Bone Elastic vs. Structural Parameters......Page 419
15.7 Dependency of Elastic Constants on Bone Tissue Properties......Page 426
16.1 Introduction......Page 432
16.2 Uniaxial Properties......Page 433
16.3 Multiaxial Behavior......Page 452
16.4 Post-Yield Behavior and Damage Mechanisms......Page 458
16.5 Time-Dependent Behavior......Page 463
Acknowledgments......Page 466
17.1 Introduction......Page 474
17.2 Mechanical Property Degradation as a Measure of Damage......Page 475
17.3 Histological Measures of Damage Accumulation......Page 481
17.4 Acoustic Emission as a Measure of Damage Accumulation......Page 487
17.5 Summary/Conclusions......Page 488
18.1 Introduction......Page 492
18.2 Basic Concepts of Continuum Damage Mechanics......Page 493
18.3 Constitutive Models for Damaging Materials......Page 494
18.4 Applications to Nonhomogeneous Loading......Page 506
18.5 Micromechanical Models......Page 511
18.6 Damage and Repair Models......Page 513
18.7 Summary......Page 514
19.1 Introduction......Page 518
19.2 Changes in Mechanical Properties......Page 521
19.3 Are Youthful Changes Adaptive?......Page 526
19.5 Causes of Mechanical Decline......Page 528
19.6 Ontogenetic Changes and Whole-Bone Behavior......Page 529
19.7 Conclusions......Page 531
20.1 Introduction......Page 534
20.2 Postmortem Changes in Mechanical Properties......Page 535
20.3 The Mechanical Effects of Preserving Bone......Page 539
20.4 The Mechanical Effects of Storing and Treating Allograft Bone......Page 545
Acknowledgments......Page 553
IV......Page 558
21.1 Organization of Bone Vasculature......Page 560
21.2 Fluid Mechanical Aspects of Bone Blood Flow......Page 572
Acknowledgments......Page 581
22.1 System Description......Page 588
22.2 Molecular Transport Mechanisms in Bone......Page 593
22.3 Biophysical Mechanisms of Fluid Movement......Page 597
22.4 Measurement of Interstitial Fluid Flow......Page 600
22.5 Implications of Interstitial Fluid Flow for Bone Growth, Adaptation, and Repair......Page 603
23.1 Introduction and Notation......Page 618
23.2 The Microstructure of the Bone Porosities......Page 620
23.3 Poroelasticity......Page 624
23.4 Poroelasticity Applied to Bone......Page 633
23.5 Summary......Page 641
24.1 Streaming Potentials in Bone: A Historical Perspective......Page 650
24.2 From Piezoelectricity to Streaming Potentials in Bone......Page 651
24.3 Microelectrode Studies of Streaming Potentials in Bone......Page 658
24.4 Streaming Potentials in Living Bone......Page 662
24.5 Review of Theoretical Models of Streaming Potentials in Bone: In Vitro Models......Page 663
24.6 Theory Development in Live Bone......Page 666
25.1 Introduction......Page 672
25.2 Permeability: Darcy’s Law......Page 673
25.3 Permeability Theories......Page 677
25.4 Cancellous Bone Permeability......Page 680
25.5 Viscosity......Page 684
25.6 Summary......Page 686
V......Page 690
26.1 Introduction......Page 692
26.2 Bone Loss under Conditions of Reduced Loading......Page 694
26.3 Adaptation of the Skeleton to Increased Functional Loading......Page 701
26.4 Transduction Pathways......Page 709
26.5 Mechanical Modulation of Bone Repair......Page 711
26.6 Conclusions......Page 716
27.1 Introduction and Historical Backgroudn......Page 724
27.2 Hydrostatic Compression......Page 725
27.3 Direct Platten Contact......Page 727
27.4 Longitudinal Substrate Distension......Page 729
27.5 Substrate Bending......Page 730
27.6 Axisymmetric Substrate Distension......Page 731
27.7 Fluid Shear......Page 735
27.8 Combined Stimuli......Page 738
28.1 Introduction......Page 746
28.2 The Bone Cell Network......Page 747
28.3 Mechanosensing Mechanism in Bone......Page 750
28.4 Oseteocyte Mechanosensitivity......Page 751
28.5 The Lacuno-Canalicular Network and Bone Remodeling-a Hypothesis......Page 754
29.1 Introduction......Page 762
29.2 The Connected Cellular Networl......Page 763
29.3 Mechanosensation on the CCN......Page 764
29.4 Questions for Future Research; Socratic Questions......Page 770
30.1 Introduction......Page 780
30.2 The Problems with Wolff\'s Law......Page 781
30.3 Toward Resolution......Page 791
31.1 Introduction......Page 796
31.2 General Concepts and Assumptions for Adaptation Simulations......Page 797
31.3 Mechanics and Computational Issues......Page 801
31.4 Theoretical Models and Simulations: Cortical Bone......Page 803
31.5 Theoretical Models and Simulations: Trabecular Bone......Page 816
31.6 Discussion......Page 829
32.2 Fracture Healing......Page 838
32.3 Mechanobiological Models......Page 841
32.4 Future Directions......Page 847
VI......Page 852
33.1 Introduction......Page 854
33.2 Parameters Related to Applied Loads......Page 855
33.3 Ex Vivo Behavior and Imaging Parameters......Page 862
33.4 In Vivo Fracture Risk and Imaging Parameters......Page 869
33.5 Development of Models of Skeletal Structures......Page 871
34.1 Introduction......Page 888
34.2 X-Ray Densitometry......Page 889
34.3 Ultrasonic Techniques......Page 893
34.4 Alternative Techniques......Page 904
34.5 Summary......Page 907
35.1 Introduction......Page 914
35.2 Biomaterials......Page 915
35.3 Design of Bone Prostheses......Page 918
35.4 Analysis and Assessment of Implant......Page 927
35.5 Future Directions......Page 932
36.1 Introduction......Page 944
36.2 Designing Bone Scaffolds......Page 945
36.3 Fabricating Bone Scaffolds......Page 949
36.4 Bone Scaffolds: An Example from Design to Testing......Page 952
36.5 Conclusion......Page 954
Index......Page 958