Boiler water treatment : principles and practice Vol 1 & 2

Table of Contents......Page 1
Bibliography......Page 0
1. Steam Generation......Page 5
1.1 Basics of Steam Generation......Page 8
1.1.2 The Separation of Steam and Water......Page 11
1.2 Energy, Work, and Power......Page 14
1.2.1 Boiler Energy and Power Units......Page 15
1.2.2 Heat Release Coefficients......Page 17
1.3 Boiler Plant Efficiency......Page 18
1.3.1 Combustion Efficiency......Page 19
1.3.3 Feedwater and Air Temperature Efficiency......Page 21
1.3.6 Blowdown Efficiency......Page 23
1.3.7 Turbine and Condenser Operation Efficiency......Page 24
2. Boiler Types and Applications......Page 27
2.1 Electric Boilers......Page 28
2.1.1 Electrical Resistance Boilers......Page 29
2.1.2.1 Submerged Electrode Boilers......Page 31
2.1.2.2 Sprayed Electrode Boilers (Water-Jet Electrode Boilers)......Page 32
2.2 Fire Tube (Shell) Boilers......Page 33
2.2.1.2 Internally Fired FT Boilers......Page 34
2.2.1.3 Scotch Marine Boilers......Page 36
2.2.1.5 Cast Iron Sectional Boilers......Page 37
2.2.2 Modern, Packaged Horizontal and Vertical Boilers......Page 38
2.2.2.1 Packaged, Horizontal FT Boilers......Page 39
2.2.2.2 Packaged Vertical Boilers......Page 42
2.3 Water Tube Boilers......Page 43
2.3.1.1 Water Tube Furnace Section......Page 47
2.3.1.2 Water Tube Convection-Pass Section......Page 48
2.3.2.1 Boiler Steam - Water Circulation System......Page 49
2.3.3 Types of WT Boiler......Page 51
2.3.3.2.1 Hot Water Generators......Page 53
2.3.3.2.2 Water Tube Steam Generators......Page 54
2.3.3.3 Cogeneration Boilers......Page 56
2.3.3.4 Utility Power Boilers......Page 57
2.3.3.5 Marine Boilers......Page 59
2.3.3.6 Waste Heat and other Special Purpose Boilers......Page 60
2.3.3.6.4 Black Liquor Recovery Boilers......Page 61
2.3.3.6.6 Fluidized Bed Combustion Boilers (FBC Boilers)......Page 62
2.3.3.6.10 Vyncke Special Purpose Boilers......Page 63
2.3.4.2 Clean-Steam Generators......Page 64
2.4 Nuclear Reactor Boilers......Page 65
2.4.1 Nuclear Power Reactors......Page 66
2.4.2 Nuclear Steam Supply System......Page 67
2.4.3 Principles of Nuclear Reactor Boiler Plant Operation......Page 69
2.4.3.2 Vertical Recirculating, Inverted U-Tube NP Steam Generator......Page 70
3. Boiler Plant Subsystems, Appurtenances, and Auxiliaries......Page 71
3.1.1 Water Pretreatment Plant System......Page 73
3.1.2 Feedwater Supply System......Page 74
3.1.5 Balance of Plant Equipment Systems......Page 75
3.2 Boiler Appurtenances......Page 76
3.2.1 Blowdown (Blow Off) Valves......Page 77
3.2.1.1 Main (Primary or Bottom) BD Arrangement......Page 79
3.2.1.2 Surface (Skimmer) BD Arrangement......Page 80
3.2.1.3 Rapid Action Intermittent BD Arrangement......Page 81
3.2.1.4 Calculating Blowdown......Page 82
3.2.2.2 Stop Valves......Page 83
3.2.4.2 Thermohydraulic FW Regulator......Page 84
3.2.6 Soot Blowers......Page 85
3.3.1 Burners......Page 86
3.3.1.3 Pulverized Fuel Coal Burners......Page 87
3.3.2.2 Underfeed Stokers......Page 88
3.3.5.2 Induced Draft Fans......Page 89
3.3.6 Economizers and Air Heaters......Page 90
3.3.7.1 Centrifugal Pumps......Page 92
3.3.7.4 Steam Turbine - Driven FW Pumps (FW Pump Turbines)......Page 93
3.3.8 Superheaters and Reheaters......Page 94
3.3.10 Steam Traps......Page 95
3.3.10.5 Thermodynamic Steam Traps (Disc Steam Traps)......Page 96
3.3.11 Sampling Coils (Sampling Pots/Sample Coolers)......Page 97
3.3.12 Blowdown Water and Flash Steam and Heat Recovery Systems......Page 98
3.3.14 Feedwater Heaters and Deaerators......Page 102
4. Waterside and Steamside Problems: The Basics......Page 103
4.1.1 The Hot Water Heating System Cycle......Page 104
4.2 The Scope of BW Treatment and Control of Steam/Waterside Chemistry......Page 106
4.3 Fundamental Steam - Waterside Problems and Water Treatment Objectives......Page 112
4.3.2 Basic Interrelationship of Waterside Problems with Boiler Design and Operation......Page 114
4.4 Deposition......Page 116
4.4.1 Mechanisms of Deposition......Page 118
4.5.1 Mechanisms of Corrosion......Page 121
4.5.1.1 Influence of Dissolved Gases in Corrosion Mechanisms......Page 123
4.5.1.2 Influence of Fouling and Deposition in Corrosion Mechanisms......Page 124
4.6 Fouling......Page 125
4.7.1 Foaming......Page 126
4.7.3 Carryover......Page 127
4.8.1.1 Training and Experience......Page 128
4.8.1.3 Control of Water Chemistry......Page 129
4.8.2 Need for Water Treatment Capital Equipment......Page 130
4.8.2.1 Need for Water Softening......Page 132
4.8.2.2 Need for Deaerators and other Equipment......Page 133
4.8.2.3 Need for Silica Removal......Page 134
4.8.3 Limiting Deposition......Page 135
4.8.4.1 Corrosion Control through Cathodic Protection......Page 139
4.8.4.2 Control of Oxygen......Page 140
4.8.4.3 Control over Salinity and Adverse Chemical Reactions......Page 141
4.8.4.4 Passivation......Page 142
5. Waterside and Steamside Problems: Hot Water Heating and Low-Pressure Steam Boiler Specifics......Page 145
5.1 Problems with Heating Coils......Page 147
5.2 Problems Associated with the Use of Glycols......Page 149
5.3.1 Oxygen Corrosion......Page 150
5.4.1 Excessive Water Loss......Page 152
5.4.2 Problems of Maintaining Inhibitor Levels and Controlling Blowdown and Surging......Page 154
5.4.3 Lead and Lag Boiler Operation......Page 156
5.5 Waterside Problems in Medium-Temperature Hot Water and High-Temperature Hot Water Systems......Page 157
6. Waterside and Steamside Problems: Pre-Boiler Section Specifics......Page 162
6.1 Overview of Pre-Boiler Section Waterside Problems......Page 163
6.2.1 Lack of Softening or Dealkalization Capability......Page 164
6.2.2 Hardness Breakthrough......Page 167
6.2.3 Chloride Leakage......Page 168
6.2.5 Sodium and Silica Leakage......Page 169
6.2.6 Organic Fouling......Page 171
6.2.7 External Treatment Carryover and After-Precipitation......Page 172
6.3.2 Oxygen Loading......Page 174
6.3.4 Oil and Process Contamination......Page 175
6.4.1 Problems of Inadequate Feedwater Deaeration......Page 177
6.4.2 Selective Corrosion Problems Affecting Pre-Boiler Section Equipment......Page 180
6.4.3 The Deposition of Scale and Corrosion Debris in Pre-Boiler Sections......Page 182
7.1 Boiler Scaling, Fouling, and Deposition......Page 187
7.1.1 Deposition by Alkaline Earth Metal Salts......Page 190
7.1.1.1 Deposition of Calcium Salts......Page 193
7.1.1.3 Control over the Deposition of Calcium and Magnesium Salts......Page 194
7.1.2.1 Silica and Silicate Deposition......Page 197
7.1.2.2 Iron Oxide and other Corrosion Debris Deposition......Page 201
7.1.2.3 Deposits Originating from Inorganic Salts and Organics......Page 203
7.2 Passivation and Common Corrosion Problems......Page 207
7.2.1 Boiler Surfaces Passivation......Page 211
7.2.2.1 Coarse Magnetite Corrosion......Page 212
7.2.2.2 Boiler Section Oxygen Corrosion......Page 213
8. Waterside and Steamside Problems: Post-Boiler Section Specifics......Page 215
8.1 Steam Purity and Steam Quality......Page 217
8.1.1 Necessity for Steam Sampling......Page 218
8.1.1.1 Steam Sampling Problems......Page 219
8.1.2 Steam - Water Separation Effectiveness......Page 220
8.1.2.1 Steam - Water Separation Devices......Page 221
8.1.2.2 The Effect of Boiler Operating Variables on Steam - Water Separation......Page 222
8.1.2.3 Surging and Carryover and Steam - Water Interface Physicochemical Factors......Page 224
8.1.2.3.1 Foaming......Page 225
8.2 Corrosive Gases in Steam and Condensate Systems......Page 226
8.2.1 Oxygen Infiltration......Page 227
8.2.1.1 Oxygen Infiltration Resulting from Operating Practices......Page 229
8.2.2 Carbon Dioxide Carryover......Page 230
8.2.3 Other Corrosive Gases and Related Impurities......Page 233
8.3 Vaporous Silica and other Steam Volatiles......Page 235
8.4 Scale and Corrosion Debris Transport......Page 238
8.5.1 Contamination from Oils, Fats, and Greases......Page 240
8.5.2 Contamination from Industrial Processes......Page 241
9. Pre-Boiler and Post-Boiler Treatment Processes......Page 244
9.1 Overview of Common External Treatment Process Technologies......Page 247
9.2 Basic Pretreatment Processes......Page 248
9.2.1.1 Pressure Aerators......Page 250
9.2.2 Precipitation Softening (PS)......Page 251
9.2.3 Clarification......Page 254
9.2.3.1 Inorganic Coagulants......Page 255
9.2.3.2 Organic Polymeric Coagulants and Flocculants......Page 257
9.2.4 Pre-Boiler Filtration......Page 261
9.2.4.1 Sand Filters......Page 262
9.2.4.2 Multimedia (MM) Filters......Page 263
9.2.4.3 Activated Carbon Filters......Page 264
9.2.4.4 Bag Filters and Related Technologies......Page 266
9.2.5 Basic Pretreatment/Using Natural Zeolite, Greensand, and Synthetic Resins......Page 267
9.2.5.1 Iron and Manganese Removal Using Greensands......Page 268
9.2.5.2 Softening by Ion-Exchange......Page 269
9.2.5.3 Organic Traps (Organic Scavengers)......Page 271
9.2.5.4 Multifunctional Water Conditioners......Page 272
9.2.6 Nonchemical Treatments (Magnetic, Electrostatic and Similar Devices)......Page 274
9.2.6.1 Review of Nonchemical Treatment Technology......Page 275
9.2.6.2 Examples of Nonchemical Technologies for Scale and Hardness Control......Page 279
9.3 Pre-Boiler Purification Technologies......Page 282
10. Internal Treatment Programs......Page 286
10.1 Outline of Internal Treatment Control and Programs......Page 287
10.1.1 Types of Internal Treatment Program......Page 288
10.1.2 Historical Perspective of External and Internal Treatments......Page 290
10.2 Anodic Inhibitor Chemistries......Page 295
10.2.1 Nitrites......Page 296
10.2.2 Molybdates......Page 298
10.2.3 Silicates......Page 299
10.2.5 Anodic and Cathodic Phosphate Inhibitors......Page 300
10.2.6 Azoles......Page 301
10.2.7 Anodic Inhibitor Programs......Page 303
10.3 Tannin Programs......Page 304
10.3.1 Tannin Chemistries......Page 306
10.3.2 Tannin Application Notes......Page 307
10.3.3 Tannin Program Formulations......Page 310
10.4.1 Alkaline Aluminate and Silicate-Based Boiler Compounds......Page 312
10.4.2 Carbonate-Cycle Boiler Programs......Page 314
10.4.3.1 Phosphate Product Selection......Page 320
10.4.3.2 Phosphate-Cycle Reactions......Page 323
10.4.3.3 Phosphate-Cycle Requirement Calculations......Page 326
10.4.3.4 Phosphate-Cycle Benefits and Formulations......Page 328
10.5 Chelant Program Chemistries......Page 331
11.1 Oxygen Scavenger Chemistries......Page 332
11.1.1 Sodium Sulfite......Page 336
11.1.2 Sodium Bisulfite......Page 340
11.1.3 Sodium Metabisulfite......Page 341
11.1.4 Hydrazine......Page 342
11.1.4.1 Feeding Hydrazine......Page 344
11.1.4.2 Hydrazine Reactions......Page 345
11.1.5 Diethylhydroxylamine (DEHA)......Page 347
11.1.6 Erythorbic Acid and Sodium Erythorbate......Page 350
11.1.7 Hydroquinone (HQ)......Page 352
11.1.8 Methylethylketoxime (MEKO)......Page 354
11.1.9 Carbohydrazide (CHZ)......Page 355
11.1.10 1-Aminopyrrolidine (1-AP)......Page 357
11.1.14 Tannins......Page 358
11.2 Oxygenated Treatment (OT)......Page 359
11.2.1 The Background to Oxygenated Treatment......Page 361
11.3 Ammonia and Amine Adjuncts......Page 363
11.3.1 Post-Boiler Section Corrosion Summary......Page 365
11.3.2 Carbon Dioxide and Carbonic Acid......Page 367
11.3.3 Types of Neutralizing Amines......Page 370
12. Control of Boiler Water Chemistry......Page 374
12.1 Water Treatment Recommendation Perspectives......Page 375
12.1.1 ASME Consensus......Page 376
12.1.2 BS 2486......Page 377
12.1.3 ABMA Commercial BW Requirements and ASB BW Guide......Page 378
12.1.4 McCoy BW......Page 380
12.2.2 Notes and Comments to Table 12.2......Page 381
12.2.3 Notes and Comments to Table 12.3......Page 385
12.2.4 Notes and Comments to Table 12.4......Page 386
12.2.5 Notes and Comments to Table 12.5......Page 388
12.2.6 Notes and Comments to Table 12.6......Page 390
12.2.7 Notes and Comments to Table 12.7......Page 391
12.2.8 Notes and Comments to Table 12.8......Page 393
12.2.9 Notes and Comments to Table 12.9......Page 395
12.2.10 Notes and Comments to Table 12.10......Page 398
12.2.11 Notes and Comments to Table 12.11......Page 401
12.2.12 Notes and Comments to Table 12.12......Page 404
12.2.13 Notes and Comments to Table 12.13......Page 407
12.2.14 Notes and Comments to Table 12.14......Page 408
12.2.15 Notes and Comments to Table 12.15......Page 409
12.2.16 Notes and Comments to Table 12.16......Page 410
12.2.18 Notes and Comments to Table 12.18......Page 411
13.1 Sampling and Testing Steam and Condensate......Page 414
13.1.1 Sampling Steam and Condensate in Higher Pressure Boiler Systems......Page 415
13.1.3 Sampling for Carryover and Steam Purity Tests......Page 417
13.1.4 Further Notes on Steam Quality and Purity and General Sampling Requirements......Page 419
13.2.1 Protection of Standby Boilers (Short-Term Offline)......Page 421
13.2.2.1 Waterside Wet Lay-up......Page 423
13.2.2.2 Waterside Dry Lay-up......Page 425
13.2.3.1 Fireside Hot Lay-up......Page 426
13.3 Boiler Inspections......Page 427
13.3.1 Preparing for Boiler Inspections......Page 428
13.3.2 Scope of Inspection Work......Page 429
13.3.4.1 FT Waterside Inspections......Page 430
13.3.4.2 FT Fireside Inspections......Page 432
13.3.5.1 WT Waterside Inspections......Page 433
13.3.5.2 WT Fireside Inspections......Page 435
13.3.7 Additional Inspection Notes......Page 436
13.3.7.2 Nondestructive Testing (NDT)......Page 437
13.4 Boiler Cleaning......Page 438
13.4.1 Chemical Cleaning Basics......Page 440
13.4.1.1 Online Cleaning Basics......Page 441
13.4.1.2 Online Cleaning Formulations......Page 442
13.4.1.3 Offline Cleaning Basics......Page 444
13.4.2.1 Dirt Loading......Page 446
13.4.3 Boiler Scales and Deposits......Page 447
13.4.3.3 Iron Oxides......Page 448
14. Control of Fireside Conditions and Surfaces......Page 449
14.1.1.1 Problems with Solid Fuels......Page 450
14.1.2 Combustion Zone Problems......Page 453
14.1.3 High-Temperature Zone Problems......Page 454
14.1.4 Cold-End Zone Problems......Page 455
14.1.5 Emissions Zone Problems......Page 457
14.2 Fuel Treatments/Additives......Page 458
14.2.1 Combustion Catalysts and Improvers......Page 461
14.2.2 Slag Modifiers and Deposit Modifiers......Page 462
14.2.4 Acid Neutralizers (Fuel Corrosion Inhibitors)......Page 463
14.2.6 NO_x Emission Control Additives......Page 464
14.2.7 Fuel Oil Conditioners and Storage Additives......Page 465
14.3.2 Liquid, Oil-Soluble Combustion Catalyst and Slag Modifier......Page 467
14.3.4 Combined Combustion Improver, Sludge Dispersant, and Fuel Stabilizer......Page 468
14.4.1 Composition of Air......Page 469
14.4.2 Combustion of Fuels......Page 470
14.4.3 Analysis of Flue Gas......Page 471
14.4.3.1 Gas Measuring Equipment......Page 473
Properties of Saturated Steam (U.S. and SI Units)......Page 474
Properties of Glycols......Page 475
Units in Water Analysis......Page 476
Solubilities of Some Common Substances......Page 478
Analytical Conversions of Some Common Substances......Page 479
Standard SI Prefixes......Page 480
Units of Measurement......Page 481
Table of Elements and Atomic Weights......Page 485
Absolute pressure - Azeotrope......Page 489
Back pressure - Bypass line......Page 494
Calibrate - Cyclone separator......Page 498
Damper - Ductility......Page 506
Economizer - Extraction steam......Page 509
Feathering - Free mineral acidity (FMA)......Page 511
Gagging - Gulping......Page 515
Handhold - Hydroxyl ion......Page 516
Ideal engine - Ion exchange resins......Page 520
Laminar flow - Low solids treatment......Page 522
Macroporous resin - Mud drum......Page 524
Once-through boilers - Oxygen scavenger......Page 525
Package boiler - Purge period......Page 527
Quick closing valve......Page 529
Radiant heat - Ryznar Index or Stability Index; (SI)......Page 530
SAC Resin - Synergy......Page 532
Tensile strength - Turbine stage......Page 537
Vacuum - Viscosity......Page 538
Zeolite - Zeta potential......Page 539
Bibliography......Page 540
A......Page 549
B......Page 564
C......Page 582
D......Page 615
E......Page 626
F......Page 632
G......Page 645
H......Page 648
I......Page 657
L......Page 666
M......Page 669
N......Page 677
O......Page 682
P......Page 689
Q......Page 705
R......Page 706
S......Page 710
T......Page 736
U......Page 744
V......Page 745
W......Page 748
Y......Page 754
Z......Page 755