Block by Block: The Historical and Theoretical Foundations of Thermodynamics

Cover
Block by Block: The Historical and Theoretical Foundations of Thermodynamics
Copyright
Dedication
Acknowledgements
Contents
List of Figures
Introduction
	Prologue
	My Motivation – Too Many Unanswered Questions
	General Approach
	The Four Parts
		Part I – The Big Bang and the Synthesis of the Elements in the Stars
		Part II – The Atom: Hard Spheres that Attract and Repel
		Part III – Energy and the Conservation Laws
		Part IV – Entropy and the Laws of Thermodynamics
	History
	The Silent Evidence
This Book is for the Curious Mind
PART I: The Big Bang
	Chapter 1: The Big Bang: science
		The Inflation Theory of How the Universe Began and the Atoms Arrived
		After the First Three Minutes – One Billion °C and the Formation of Heavier Nuclei
		After the First 300 000 Years – 3000 °C and Recombination
		The Formation of the Elements
	Chapter 2: The Big Bang: discovery
		Copernicus – the Return to a Sun-centered Universe and the Onset of the Scientific Revolution
		Brahe and Kepler – the Elliptical Orbit
		Galileo – One Data Point is Worth One Thousand Opinions
		Newton and Gravity
		The Twentieth Century
		Einstein and the Static Universe
		Friedmann, Lemaître, and the Expanding Universe
		Deciphering Starlight
		Henrietta Leavitt’s Cepheid Variables
		Einstein credits Lemaître
		The Meeting of Two Worlds: Cosmology and Particle Physics
		Gamow, Alpher, and Herman Calculate Conditions of the Early Universe
		The 5- and 8-Particle Gaps
		Hoyle Shows the Bridge across the 8-Particle Gap
		Up Until Now, Only Theory. Then Serendipity Arrived.
		Epilogue: The Validating Imperfection
		On to the Atom
PART II: The Atom
	Chapter 3: The Atom: science
		Forming the Elements – Review
		Some Staggering Numbers
		Strange Behavior at Small Scales
		The Atomic Building Blocks and the Interactions Between Them
		Quarks – Source of the Strong Interaction
		Nuclear Decay – Alpha, Beta and Gamma
		The Electromagnetic Interaction
		Why the Atom has Volume – the Quantized Orbit
		Why a Minimum Radius?
		Heisenberg Uncertainty
		Pauli Exclusion
		The Behavior of Orbiting Electrons Enables Modeling the Atoms as Hard Spheres
		The Incomplete Outer Shell
	Chapter 4: The Atom: discovery
		The Rise of Chemistry from Alchemy
		The False Clarity of History
		The Rise of Modern Physics
		Brownian Motion – Manifestation of Atoms in Motion
		Discovering What’s Inside the Atom
		Crookes ➔ Thomson ➔ Röntgen ➔ Becquerel ➔ Curie ➔ Rutherford ➔ Planck ➔ Einstein ➔ Bohr ➔ Schrödinger ➔ Heisenberg ➔ Born
		Crookes ➔ Thomson ➔ Röntgen ➔ Becquerel ➔ Curie ➔ Rutherford ➔ Planck ➔ Einstein ➔ Bohr ➔ Schrödinger ➔ Heisenberg ➔ Born
		Crookes ➔ Thomson ➔ Röntgen ➔ Becquerel ➔ Curie ➔ Rutherford ➔ Planck ➔ Einstein ➔ Bohr ➔ Schrödinger ➔ Heisenberg ➔ Born
		Crookes ➔ Thomson ➔ Röntgen ➔ Becquerel ➔ Curie ➔ Rutherford ➔ Planck ➔ Einstein ➔ Bohr ➔ Schrödinger ➔ Heisenberg ➔ Born
		Crookes ➔ Thomson ➔ Röntgen ➔ Becquerel ➔ Curie ➔ Rutherford ➔ Planck ➔ Einstein ➔ Bohr ➔ Schrödinger ➔ Heisenberg ➔ Born
		Crookes ➔ Thomson ➔ Röntgen ➔ Becquerel ➔ Curie ➔ Rutherford ➔ Planck ➔ Einstein ➔ Bohr ➔ Schrödinger ➔ Heisenberg ➔ Born
			Plum Pudding
			Blackbody Radiation
		Crookes ➔ Thomson ➔ Röntgen ➔ Becquerel ➔ Curie ➔ Rutherford ➔ Planck ➔ Einstein ➔ Bohr ➔ Schrödinger ➔ Heisenberg ➔ Born
		Crookes ➔ Thomson ➔ Röntgen ➔ Becquerel ➔ Curie ➔ Rutherford ➔ Planck ➔ Einstein ➔ Bohr ➔ Schrödinger ➔ Heisenberg ➔ Born
			Just When it Seemed that Physics was Ending
		Crookes ➔ Thomson ➔ Röntgen ➔ Becquerel ➔ Curie ➔ Rutherford ➔ Planck ➔ Einstein ➔ Bohr ➔ Schrödinger ➔Heisenberg ➔ Born
			The Balmer Series
		Crookes ➔ Thomson ➔ Röntgen ➔ Becquerel ➔ Curie ➔ Rutherford ➔ Planck ➔ Einstein ➔ Bohr ➔ Schrödinger ➔ Heisenberg ➔ Born
			Particles Behave Like Waves
		Crookes ➔ Thomson ➔ Röntgen ➔ Becquerel ➔ Curie ➔ Rutherford ➔ Planck ➔ Einstein ➔ Bohr ➔ Schrödinger ➔ Heisenberg ➔ Born
		Crookes ➔ Thomson ➔ Röntgen ➔ Becquerel ➔ Curie ➔ Rutherford ➔ Planck ➔ Einstein ➔ Bohr ➔ Schrödinger ➔ Heisenberg ➔ Born
		The Historic Solvay Conference of 1927
		Pauli Exclusion, the Zeeman Effect, and Electron Spin
		Spectroscopy
		Paul Dirac
		The Neutron
		The Weak Interaction
		The Splitting of the Atom
		The Strong Interaction
		The Quark
		The Standard Model
		Conclusion
PART III: Energy and theConservation Laws
	Chapter 5: Energy: science (and some history)
		Energy Invented to Quantify Change
		Events Happen but Total Energy Remains the Same
		It’s the Change in Energy that Matters
		Force, Energy, Terminology, History, and Theory – All Intertwined
		The Deep Dive into the Four Fundamental Interactions
		Force Results from the Change in Potential Energy with Distance
		It’s the Change in Potential Energy with Distance that Causes Acceleration
		What is Force?
		Empirically Derived Force Equations as a Reasonable Assumption
		Force and Conservation of Energy
		Energy Lies at the Core of Thermodynamics
		Energy of Motion of a Single Body
		Temperature Quantifies the Average Kinetic Energy of Many Bodies
		Radiant Energy of Photons
		Free Fall Theory – the Fundamental Connection between Δ h and v2
		The Lever – It’s All About wΔh
		Free Fall History – Galileo Discovers the Relationship between h and v2
		The Mechanical Theory of Heat – Weight Falls, Paddle Spins, Water Heats
		The Kinetic Theory of Gases
		The 1st Law of Thermodynamics
	Chapter 6: Motion prior to Galileo
		History is Only Clear in Hindsight
		How to Reconcile the Varieties of Motion
		Classical Mechanics – the Lever and Free Fall
		Aristotle Turned Man’s Mind toward the Natural World
	Chapter 7: Galileo and the Law of Fall
		Galileo’s Break from Aristotle
		Discovery of the Parabolic Shape of a Projectile’s Trajectory
		Galileo’s “Radical Re-orientation” from Pure to Applied Science
		The Pull toward Experimentation
		The Law of Fall
		The Law of Fall Determined by an Ingenious Experiment
		How Did Galileo Measure a Time-varying Speed?
		The Dawn of a New Variable to Science – Time
		What is Speed?
		Galileo’s Use of Mathematics to Quantify the Physical World
		Galileo Chose to Ignore Cause
		The Scientific Method
		Galileo and the Launch of the Scientific Revolution
		One Data Point is Worth One Thousand Opinions
	Chapter 8: Newton and the Laws of Motion
		Sir Isaac Newton
		Annus Mirabilis – Newton’s Miraculous Year
		Gravity and Action at a Distance
		The Rise of Calculus
		The Privacy of His Thoughts
		The Dispute with Leibniz
		The Path to the Principia
		Robert Hooke and the Challenge of Circular Motion
		1679 – Newton Conquers Circular Motion
		Why not Hooke?
		Newton’s 1st Law of Motion
		The Inadequacy of Language
		Newton’s Early Insights into Universal Gravitation
		Mass – a New Concept
		Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion – “Soul of Classical Mechanics”
		Newton Turns to Experimentation
		Newton’s 3rd Law of Motion
		Force – a New Concept
		Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
		“A prudent question is one-half of wisdom” – Francis Bacon
		“The Principia was a Tour-de-Force Demonstration of the Intelligibility of the Universe”
		The Principia Broke Physics Away from Philosophy
		Epilogue – Completion of the Scientific Revolution
		Newton’s Relevance to Energy
	Chapter 9: The lever
		Analysis of the Lever led to the Creation of Potential Energy
		Aristotle and Archimedes—Two Different Views of the Lever
		Aristotle—Equate the Effects at the Opposite Ends of the Lever
		Hero and his Five Simple Machines
		Jordanus and Vertical Displacement
		The Inclined Plane
		You Can’t Prove a Law
		Perpetual Motion and the March of Analysis
	Chapter 10: The rise of mv2
		Galileo Connected h with v2
		Descartes – the First to Attempt a Conservation Law based on Motion and . . .
		Descartes –. . . the First to Propose a Mathematical Characterization of Said Motion
		The Evolution of Kinetic Energy
		Huygens – Galileo’s Successor
		Collision Theory – the First Recorded Usage of mv2
		Center of Gravity Calculations Provided a Means to Connect Weight (Mass) with Speed
		Leibniz and the Birth of Modern Physics
		Leibniz’s Famed Thought Experiment Provided a Different Means to Connect Weight with Speed
		1686 – the Birth of dynamics
	Chapter 11: Bernoulli and Euler unite Newton and Leibniz
		The Bernoulli Family and Johann the Father
		First Use of the Word “Energy” in Physics
		Daniel Bernoulli
		The Bernoulli Equation for Fluid Flow
		The Bernoulli Family Drama
		Leonhard Euler
		Bernoulli and Euler
	Chapter 12: Rudimentary version of the conservation of mechanical energy (1750)
		Simple Machines Revealed Potential Energy in the Form of mg∆h (Mechanical Work)
		Free Fall and Ascent Revealed the Interplay between v2 and ∆h
		Leibniz Revealed the Logical Connection between mg∆h and mv2
		Newton and Leibniz Revealed the Fundamental Connection between Force, mg∆h, and ½mv2
		From the Single Body to Many Particles
	Chapter 13: Heat: the missing piece to the puzzle
		The Historians’ Perspectives
		The 1st Law of Thermodynamics – Revisited
		The Thermometer
		Interlude – the Various Theories of Heat
			The Material Theory of Heat: Caloric
			The Mechanical Theory of Heat: Work–Heat Equivalence
			The Kinetic Theory of Gases
	Chapter 14: Joseph Black and the rise of heat capacity
		Joseph Black – Separated Temperature from Heat
		Evaporative Cooling Does Not Make Sense in the Caloric World
		The Science of Calorimetry and the Doctrines of Sensible and Latent Heats
		The Dulong–Petit Law
		Understanding Heat Capacity at the Atomic Scale
		Conclusion: The Heat Capacity per Atom is the Same for Monatomic Gases = 1.5 R
		Cvof Crystalline Solid = 3 R
	Chapter 15: Lavoisier and the birth of modern chemistry
		Joseph Priestley and Oxygen
		Cavendish Resolves the Water Controversy – 2 Parts Hydrogen, 1 Part Oxygen
		Lavoisier – Making Sense of the Data
		The Death of Phlogiston
		Conservation of Mass
		Lavoisier Lays the Foundation for Modern Chemistry
		A Real Guinea Pig Experiment – Respiration as a Form of Combustion
		The Two Competing Theories of Heat – Material (Caloric) vs. Motion
		Lavoisier (Unfortunately) Gave Significance to Caloric
	Chapter 16: Rise of the steam engine
		It Started with the Newcomen Engine
		Lazare Carnot and the Reversible Process
		“The Great Carnot”  – Referring to Father, not Son
		Sadi Carnot
		Saved by a Thread
	Chapter 17: Caloric theory: beginning of its end
		Early 1800s Provides New Evidence Challenging the Caloric Theory
		Rumford Bores a Cannon and so Boils Water
		Davy Melts Ice by Using Friction
		Young and the Connection between Light and Radiant Heat
		The Challenge of Invalidating Caloric – There was no Competing Hypothesis
		Mayer and Joule – Succeeded in Killing Caloric by Ignoring It
		Work ⇔ Heat
	Chapter 18: The ideal gas
		Theorists Attempt to Explain Heat Capacity
	Chapter 19: The final steps to energy and its conservation
		But the Science of Heat was Already Complete, Right?
	Chapter 20: Julius Robert Mayer
		The Java
		The Meaning of Bright Red Blood
		Return to Heilbronn
		Mayer’s Technical Journey
		The Challenge of Building a Conservation Law that includes Heat
		The Piston
		Mayer’s Logic
		The Math
		The Mechanical Equivalent of Heat (MEH)
		The Community’s Response
		Returning to Kuhn’s “Inner Belief” Trigger
		Mayer’s 1845 Publication
		Mayer’s Fall and Rise
	Chapter 21: James Joule
		It Began with the Electric Motor
		The Impossibility of Perpetual Motion
		Turning Away from the Electro-Magnetic Motor toward the Magneto-Electric Generator
		Hand Crank Turns ➞ Magneto-Electric Motor Spins ➞ Current Flows ➞ Water Warms
		Weight Falls ➞ Magneto-Electric Motor Spins ➞ Current Flows ➞ Water Warms
		Direct Friction ➞ Water Warms
		Weight Falls ➞ Paddle Spins ➞ Water Warms
		Thomson meets Joule
		Mayer and Joule – Conclusion
	Chapter 22: The1st Law of Thermodynamics
		Returning to Kuhn – the Triggers that led to Completion of Boyer’s Three Steps
		Interpreting Nature without Prejudice
		Reflections on Work–Heat Equivalence
		Energy – a New Hypothesis
		Energy Moves into Academia and the 1st Law of Thermodynamics is Born
		The Kinetic Theory of Gases: Matter-in-Motion
		Conclusion
	Chapter 23: Epilogue: The mystery of beta decay
		What’s next?
PART IV: Entropy and the Laws of Thermodynamics
	Chapter 24: Entropy: science (and some history)
		Entropy as a Consequence of Our Discrete World
		Atoms in a Box
		The Appearance of Structure in Large Systems of Colliding Atoms
		Why Uniform-Location and Gaussian-Velocity Distributions Make Sense
		The Microstate and Statistical Mechanics
		Mathematical Approach to Analyzing the Microstates – Balls in Buckets
		Finally, the Relevance of the Number of Microstates
		The Discovery of Entropy – Clausius and the Steam Engine
		Entropy Enabled Completion of Thermodynamics
		Die Entropie der Welt strebt einem Maximum zu10 – Clausius’Version of the 2nd Law
		Toward a Deeper Understanding of Clausius’ 2nd Law
		The Historical Path toward Entropy
	Chapter 25: It started with the piston
		Heat and Work Met for the First Time Inside the Steam Engine
		Discovering that We Live at the Bottom of a Sea of Air
		The Power of a Vacuum
		The Persistence of Denis Papin
	Chapter 26: Britain and the steam engine
		To Summarize
		Selecting the Path from the Steam Engine to Sadi Carnot
	Chapter 27: The Newcomen engine
		Before Newcomen came Savery’s patent
		The Hornblowers – a Short Overview
		The Newcomen and Savery Partnership
		The Increasing Relevance of Engine Efficiency
	Chapter 28: James Watt
		Engine Efficiency – Moving the Condenser out of Newcomen’s One-Cylinder Operation
		Continuous Improvement
		Watt’s Early Steps toward the Founding of Thermodynamics
		The Boulton–Watt partnership
		Jonathan (#2) Hornblower
	Chapter 29: Trevithick, Woolf, and high-pressure steam
		Cornwall – “the Cradle of the Steam Engine”
		“Trevithick Created the Engine that was Destined to Drive the Industrial and Transport Revolutions”
		Arthur Woolf – Failure in London led to Success in Cornwall
		The Cornish Engine
		Thermal Efficiency
		Measurement Drives Improvement
		The Role of the Water Wheel in This Story
		The Origin of Reversibility
		Sadi Carnot
		Conclusion
	Chapter 30: Sadi Carnot
		Historical Context
		Thermodynamic Context
		The Stage Was Set for Carnot’s Inquiry
		Revisiting the Caloric Theory
		Carnot’s Hypothesis: Thermal Efficiency = f (TH – TC)
		What Does the Thermal Efficiency of a Heat Engine Really Mean?
		Carnot Did the Best He Could with What He Had
		Carnot’s Logic for Why His Engine Was the Best
		The Refrigeration Cycle
		Nature of Working Substance is Irrelevant
		The Clapeyron and Clausius–Clapeyron Equations
		Reflections Wrap-up
	Chapter 31: Rudolf Clausius
		The Challenge of Creating a New Paradigm
		The Critical Question Confronting Clausius: What is Heat?
		Clausius’ Two Principles
		Heat–work Equivalence Provides New Approach to Analyzing the Heat Engine
		More Consequences of Heat–Work Equivalence – Again Asking, Where Does the Heat Go?
		The Arrival of Internal Energy (U) and the 1st Law of Thermodynamics
		Using the 1 st Law to Study the Properties of Saturated Steam
		Clausius Took the First Major Step toward Thermodynamics
	Chapter 32: William Thomson (Lord Kelvin)
		Thomson’s Early Education was Influenced by French Thought – Heat is Conserved
		The Thomson Brothers Discover Carnot
		Challenge #1 – the Ice Engine
		Prelude to Challenge #2 – Switching Paradigms
		Challenge #2 – Conduction
		The Science of Conduction – There is No Such Thing as “Heat Flow”
		The 1st Law Revisited – a Closer Look at Heat and Work
		The 2nd Law Struggles to Emerge
		A Final Note on Thomson’s Consequence Branch of the Entropy Tree
		William Rankine
		What Role did Clausius Play in Thomson’s Eventual Paradigm Shift?
		The Value of Learning History
		The Two Laws
		The 2nd Law from Different Perspectives – Down in the Branches of the Entropy Tree
		A Brief Return to Conduction
		Thomson’s Paradigm Shift
		Energy Dissipation and Heat Death
		Age of Earth Calculations
		Concluding Thoughts on Thomson
		Helmholtz’s Rational Approach to a Science based on Cause–Effect
	Chapter 33: The creation of thermodynamics
		Temperature
		The History of Temperature
		Thomson and the First Glimpse of δQ/T
		Capturing the New Science of Thermodynamics in the Written Word
		P. G. Tait
		Revisionist History
		John Tyndall
		The New Thermodynamics Still Lacking a Definitive 2nd Law
	Chapter 34: Clausius and the road to entropy
		The Power of Isolation
		A Brief Recap of How We Got Here
		Why Two Laws are Needed to Govern the Maximum Performance of Carnot’s Engine
		What to Do with δ Q/T?
		Revisiting Carnot’s Engine
		To Summarize: What Heat is and is not
		As Discussed Previously, the Properties of Matter
		The Logic behind Clausius’ Discovery of Entropy
		More Discussions about Clausius’ Logic
		Carnot’s Cycle was Unknowingly Designed to Reveal Entropy
		The Concept of “Equivalent Transformations”
		From Carnot to Cosmos
		It Wasn’t Just Entropy that was Important, but the Declaration of an Increasing Entropy
		The Rise of Irreversibility in Thermodynamics
		And So We Return Again to Conduction
		Completing Clausius’ Equivalent Transformation Table
		Applying his Concepts to Analysis of an Irreversible Heat Engine
		The Entropy of the Universe Increases
		But What Happens to the Entropy of an Isolated Body?
		Gibbs’ Famed Obituary on Clausius
	Chapter 35: J. Willard Gibbs
		He Found Problems to Solve in the Papers He Read
		Gibbs Built on Clausius
		Gibbs’ First Two Papers
		Moving Beyond the PV Indicator Diagram: U(S,V)
		3D Graphics
		Early Steps toward Phase Equilibrium of a Single Compound
		Entropy Maximum leads to Energy Minimum
		Thought Experiments Involving Isolated Systems: (dG)T,P ≤ 0 for Spontaneous Change
		Discussion of Select Results from Gibbs’ First Two Papers
	Chapter 36: Gibbs’ third paper
		Chemical Potential (µ) Created to Enable Analysis of Equilibrium
		Development One: Chemical Potential (Continued)
		Development Two: Gibbs’ Phase Rule
		Development Three: The Rise of Composite Properties
		Pure Mathematics
		Pure Science
		Combining Math and Science
		One More Demonstration of the Power of Calculus in Thermodynamics
		Deduction and the Scientific Method
		Gibbs Revealed the Central Theories of Classical Thermodynamics
	Chapter 37: Practical applications and Gibbs energy (G)
		Maximum Work, Free Energy, Available Energy
		The Use of Gibbs Energy (G) to Quantify Maximum Work for Constant Temperature and Pressure
		Interpreting (∆G)T,P as regards Chemical Reaction Spontaneity
		Summary
	Chapter 38: Dissemination of Gibbs’ work
		Path 1: Gibbs ➔ Maxwell ➔ Pupin ➔ Helmholtz ➔ van’t Hoff ➔ community
		Path 2: Gibbs ➔ van der Waals ➔ Roozeboom ➔ Community
		Francis Arthur Freeth – Gibbs’ Phase Rule in Practice
		Translating Gibbs
	Chapter 39: The 2nd Law, entropy, and the chemist
		A Most Challenging Chapter
		The Thomsen–Berthelot Principle
		Many Wondered, Why Do We Need Entropy?
		The Meaning of T∆Srxn
		∆Grxn Alone Determines Reaction Spontaneity
		The Electrochemical Cell Directly Measures dGrxn
		The Inadvertent Contribution of the Electrochemical Cell to Thermodynamics
		History of Gibbs’ Influence on Electrochemistry Theory
		The Gibbs–Helmholtz Equation — the Impact of Temperature on ∆G and thus on Equilibrium
	Chapter 40: Clausius: the kinetic theory of gases
		Rudolf Clausius
		The Math behind the Kinetic Theory of Gases
		Heat Capacity and the Monatomic Gas
		Mean Free Path
		Interesting Consequences of the Kinetic Theory of Gases
	Chapter 41: Maxwell: the rise of statistical mechanic
		Early Life and Saturn’s Rings
		From Micro to Macro
		Testing for Absurdity
		Maxwell’s Two Publications on the Kinetic Theory of Gases
		Colliding Balls – Physical Model
		Maxwell’s Path to the Gaussian Distribution
		A Beautiful Confirmation Experiment of the Maxwell Distribution
		The Physical Meaning of γ
		Gas Viscosity – Theory Followed by Experimental Validation
		Does the Meaning of Entropy Lay inside the Mechanical Models?
	Chapter 42: Boltzmann: the probabilistic interpretation of entropy
		A Mathematical Tour de Force
		Boltzmann’s Shift into the World of Probability
		A Challenge Presented to Boltzmann: the Reversibility Paradox
		Boltzmann’s Response to the Challenge
		Boltzmann’s Shift to an Even Deeper World of Probability
		How Many Different Ways to Put Balls in Buckets?
		One Approach to Understanding Statistical Mechanics
		Cutting up a High-Speed Film – Each Frame Equals a Unique “Complexion”
		How Many Ways Can You Place 7 Balls in 8 Buckets?
		The Meaning of Entropy from Different Perspectives
			Constraints decrease entropy
			Intermolecular interactions decrease entropy
			Energy gradients decrease entropy
			Thoughts on the mechanical meaning of entropy
		Sackur–Tetrode Validation
		Boltzmann – Standing Alone on the Battlefield
		Boltzmann’s Influence on Those who Followed
		Gibbs and the Completion of Statistical Mechanics
		Before Leaving Boltzmann – a Final Comment Regarding His Famed Distribution
		Statistical Mechanics Provides the “Why”
		Gibbs – a Great Capstone to His Life
	Chapter 43: Shannon: entropy and information theory
		Samuel F. B. Morse
		Shannon Embraces Statistical Mechanics Terminology to Describe Information Theory
Afterword
	The Science
		Revisiting the 1st Law of Thermodynamics
		Revisiting the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
	The History
		The Nature of Scientific Discovery – Thrills, Hard Work, Emotional Hardship
		Creative Thinking – Solitude Versus Group
		Creative Thinking – Power of Working at an Interface
		The Impact of Paradigms
		The Scientific Method
		The Human Drama of Science
	Final Thoughts
Bibliography
Index