Black Pepper, Piper Nigram: Piper nigrum

TABLE OF CONTENTS......Page 0
BLACK PEPPER: Piper nigrum......Page 3
CONTENTS......Page 6
FOREWORD......Page 8
PREFACE TO THE SERIES......Page 9
PREFACE......Page 11
CONTRIBUTORS......Page 13
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......Page 16
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION......Page 17
Landmarks in the History of Pepper (early dates very tentative)......Page 18
Early History......Page 20
Modern History......Page 23
Centres of Pepper Cultivation......Page 25
Indonesia......Page 26
Sri Lanka......Page 27
South East Asian Countries......Page 28
Recent History......Page 29
Present Scenario......Page 34
Future......Page 35
REFERENCES......Page 36
Ornamental Pepper......Page 37
False Peppers......Page 38
GENUS PIPER......Page 39
Piper Species Closely Related to Black Pepper from The Centre of Origin......Page 40
Cultivated P. nigrum......Page 49
Distribution......Page 52
Population Structure......Page 54
BIOSYSTEMATICS......Page 55
Cluster analysis......Page 57
Principal component analysis......Page 58
Chemical Affinity Among Cultivars......Page 61
Leaves......Page 62
Leaf sheath and prophyll......Page 63
Leaf morphological variation......Page 64
Leaf anatomy......Page 66
Stomata and Stomatal Ontogeny......Page 67
Stem Anatomy......Page 70
Normal and Aerial Root Anatomy......Page 74
Peduncle......Page 75
Anatomical Features of Other Closely Related Piper Spp.......Page 77
Conversion of Aerial Roots to Normal Roots......Page 78
Spike, Flower and Fruit Characters of Piper Spp.......Page 80
Composition of Spikes......Page 82
Fruit......Page 85
DEVELOPMENTAL MORPHOLOGY......Page 86
Inflorescence and Flower Development......Page 88
Megasporangium and Female Gametophyte......Page 90
Microsporangium and The Male Gametophyte......Page 91
Development of Embryo......Page 93
Endosperm......Page 94
Seed Coat......Page 95
Growth and Differentiation of Flower......Page 96
Anther dehiscence......Page 98
Insect pollination......Page 99
Apomixis......Page 100
Assisted pollination, hybridization......Page 101
Seed Germination......Page 103
CYTOLOGY......Page 104
Origin of P. nigrum......Page 108
Phylogeny and Interrelationships......Page 109
The New World Piper Vs. South Indian Pipe—An Evolutionary Dichotomy......Page 110
Spike Shedding......Page 112
Leaf Area, Photosynthesis and Dry Matter Accumulation......Page 113
Total Nitrogen and Nitrate Reductase Activity......Page 114
Productivity......Page 115
Drought Tolerance......Page 116
CROP IMPROVEMENT......Page 117
Clonal Selection......Page 118
Selection from Germplasm—Panchami and Pournami......Page 120
Intercultivar Hybridization......Page 122
Polyploidy and its Application......Page 125
Mutation Breeding......Page 126
Breeding for Quality......Page 127
Genetical and Biometrical Studies......Page 131
Grafting......Page 132
CONSERVATION OF PEPPER GENETIC RESOURCES......Page 134
BIOTECHNOLOGY......Page 136
Micropropagation......Page 137
Plant Regeneration from Callus Cultures......Page 141
Somaclonal variation and in vitro selection for Phytophthora foot rot tolerance......Page 142
Agrobacterium mediated gene transfer......Page 143
In Vitro Conservation of Germplasm......Page 144
CONCLUSION......Page 145
REFERENCES......Page 146
Earlier Investigations on Essential Oil of Pepper......Page 159
Monoterpene hydrocarbons and oxygenated compounds......Page 160
Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons and oxygenated compounds......Page 161
Gas Chromatographic Analysis of Essential Oil Constituents of Different Cultivars......Page 162
Sensory Evaluation of Pepper Essential Oil......Page 163
Earlier Investigations on Pungent Compounds of Pepper......Page 166
Piperine: Structure Determination and Synthesis......Page 168
Estimation of Piperine......Page 170
Piperine and its Analogues......Page 171
Phenolic Compounds of Pepper......Page 173
Blackening of Pepper......Page 174
CONCLUSIONS......Page 175
REFERENCES......Page 176
INTRODUCTION......Page 179
Rainfall......Page 180
Humidity......Page 181
Soils......Page 182
Alluvium (Entisols)......Page 183
Rooted Cuttings Production......Page 184
Rapid multiplication technique......Page 185
Site selection......Page 187
Land preparation and standard establishment......Page 189
Planting......Page 191
Cultural Practices......Page 192
Multiple Cropping......Page 194
Management of Diseased Garden......Page 197
Water Management......Page 198
Sources of fertilizer......Page 199
Methods and time of application......Page 200
Yield response......Page 202
Nitrogen......Page 206
Phosphorus......Page 207
Potassium......Page 209
Calcium, Magnesium and Sulphur......Page 210
Organic manuring......Page 211
Manuring with burnt earth......Page 213
Interaction of Nutrients......Page 214
Foliar Diagnosis......Page 216
Nursery techniques......Page 217
Soil availability of nutrients......Page 218
REFERENCES......Page 219
Propagation of Pepper......Page 225
2. Sarikei method......Page 226
Coiling and hurrying the pepper stem......Page 227
Land Preparation and Planting......Page 228
Spacing and Plant Density......Page 229
Standards or Supports......Page 230
Root Architecture......Page 231
Despiking......Page 232
Yield Prediction from Soil Fertility—Management Parameters......Page 233
Fertilizer Recommendations......Page 235
REFERENCES......Page 236
POST SCRIPT......Page 239
CHAPTER 4.2. MANAGEMENT OF PEPPER IN INDONESIA......Page 240
Climate......Page 241
Land Preparation......Page 242
Planting Material......Page 243
Climbing Standard......Page 244
Fertilization......Page 245
Pruning......Page 247
Pest and diseases management......Page 248
Harvesting and Postharvest Technology......Page 249
Plantation Management......Page 250
REFERENCES......Page 252
CHAPTER 5.1. DISEASES OF BLACK PEPPER......Page 253
Etiology of Phytophthora foot rot......Page 254
Biology of the pathogen......Page 256
Crop loss......Page 257
Influence of weather on disease incidence......Page 258
Role of weather on the growth of pepper plants......Page 259
Disease resistance......Page 261
Phytosanitation......Page 262
Chemical control......Page 263
Organic amendments......Page 264
Disease management......Page 265
Symptoms......Page 266
Symptoms......Page 267
Symptoms......Page 268
Red Rust......Page 269
Leaf Rots and Blights......Page 270
Collection of planting material......Page 271
REFERENCES......Page 272
PLANT PARASITIC NEMATODES OF PEPPER......Page 282
Survey and distribution......Page 284
Symptoms......Page 286
Pathogenicity and economic significance......Page 287
Symptoms......Page 288
Pathogenicity and economic significance......Page 290
SLOW DECLINE DISEASE......Page 291
MANAGEMENT OF NEMATODE DISEASES......Page 293
In nurseries......Page 294
In plantations......Page 295
Plant Resistance......Page 296
Biological Control......Page 297
Trichoderma species......Page 298
Pasteuria penetrans......Page 299
Chemical Control......Page 300
REFERENCES......Page 301
CHAPTER 5.3. DISEASES OF BLACK PEPPER AND THEIR MANAGEMENT IN INDONESIA......Page 309
FOOT ROT DISEASE......Page 310
YELLOWS DISEASE......Page 311
STUNTED GROWTH DISEASE......Page 313
Foot rot disease......Page 314
Before planting condition......Page 315
Yellows disease......Page 316
REFERENCES......Page 318
Distribution......Page 321
Life history and seasonal population......Page 326
Management......Page 328
Damage......Page 329
Life history and seasonal population......Page 330
Damage......Page 331
Life history and seasonal population......Page 332
Distribution......Page 333
Life history and seasonal population......Page 334
Management......Page 335
Mealybugs......Page 336
Root Grubs......Page 337
Leaf Feeding Caterpillars......Page 338
Natural enemies......Page 339
Natural enemies......Page 340
MINOR INSECT PESTS......Page 341
REFERENCES......Page 342
CHAPTER 7.1. ON FARM PROCESSING OF BLACK PEPPER......Page 347
Decorning (Threshing)......Page 348
Grading Before Drying......Page 350
Sun Drying of Pepper......Page 352
Wynad method of sun drying......Page 353
Mechanical Driers......Page 354
b) Convection driers......Page 355
Recovery of Pepper......Page 357
Garbling, Cleaning and Fractionation......Page 358
Grades and Grading......Page 360
Adulteration......Page 362
Chemical Quality......Page 363
Microbiological Aspects......Page 364
REFERENCES......Page 365
CHAPTER 7.2. PEPPER PROCESSING—THE INDONESIAN SCENARIO......Page 367
BLACK PEPPER......Page 368
WHITE PEPPER......Page 369
PEPPER PROCESSING EQUIPMENT......Page 371
Pepper Decorticator......Page 372
Black Pepper Oil......Page 374
Black Pepper Oleoresin......Page 376
REFERENCES......Page 377
GRADES OF PEPPER......Page 379
Hot Air/Steam Sterilization......Page 380
Chemical Sterilization......Page 381
Canned green pepper......Page 382
White Pepper......Page 383
Economics of white pepper production......Page 384
Cryoground pepper......Page 385
Oleoresin......Page 386
Microencapsulated Flavours......Page 389
Extruded Spices......Page 390
REFERENCES......Page 391
ANALYSIS OF THE PEPPER ECONOMY—THE SUPPLY SIDE......Page 392
Brazil......Page 393
India......Page 394
Indonesia......Page 395
Malaysia......Page 396
Thailand......Page 397
Other Countries......Page 398
International Distribution of Exports......Page 399
ANALYSIS OF THE PEPPER ECONOMY—THE DEMAND SIDE......Page 400
Japan......Page 403
Rest of Western Europe, EFTA......Page 404
Asia and Pacific, excl. China, Producing Countries, Singapore, Australia and New Zealand......Page 405
The International Distribution of Pepper Consumption......Page 406
Introduction......Page 407
Local Prices......Page 408
Equilibrium on the Market......Page 409
The Outlook for Pepper Prices to the Year 2020......Page 410
The Outlook for Pepper Supply to the Year 2020......Page 411
Projections of the Pepper Economy—Summary and Conclusions......Page 415
APPENDIX A. THE STRUCTURAL PEPPER MODEL IN MATHEMATICAL NOTATION......Page 418
Malaysia......Page 419
India......Page 420
Japan......Page 421
Rest of Western Europe, EFTA......Page 422
Asia and Pacific, excl. China, Producing Countries, Singapore, Australia and New Zealand......Page 423
Explanation of variable abreviations:......Page 424
Explanation of country abbreviations:......Page 425
World Economic Growth—A Simple Analysis and Projections......Page 426
Economic Growth by Country or Region—Historical Developments and Projections......Page 427
World Population Growth—Historical Developments and Projections......Page 430
REFERENCES......Page 432
INDIA AND FOREIGN TRADE......Page 435
PEPPER PRODUCTION IN INDIA......Page 437
Pepper in Kerala......Page 438
Economics of pepper cultivation in Kerala......Page 442
Futures market......Page 443
Area expansion......Page 447
Research and development support......Page 448
REFERENCES......Page 449
Early History......Page 451
Supply: Area, Production and Exports......Page 452
Government Intervention......Page 453
Production......Page 454
Intervention......Page 455
Problems and Issues......Page 456
Cost of Production......Page 457
On-farm Processing......Page 458
Increased Marketing Options......Page 459
Production......Page 460
CONCLUSIONS......Page 461
REFERENCES......Page 462
PHARMACOLOGY......Page 464
Central Nervous System Depressant Activity......Page 465
Action on Liver Enzymes......Page 466
Mutagenic and Carcinogenic Effects......Page 467
Antioxidant Activity......Page 468
Antimicrobial Activity......Page 469
TOXICOLOGY......Page 470
INSECTICIDAL ACTIVITY......Page 471
CONCLUSIONS......Page 472
REFERENCES......Page 473
B. Black and White Pepper Based Products......Page 476
Ground pepper......Page 477
Pepper in manufactured foods......Page 479
Pepper Byproducts......Page 480
PEPPER IN TRADITIONAL MEDICINE AND HEALTH CARE......Page 481
Sweets and Snacks......Page 484
Pepper biscuits......Page 485
Pepper fried chicken......Page 486
CONCLUSION......Page 487
REFERENCES......Page 488
THE BACKGROUND......Page 489
THE PRESENT......Page 490
THE FUTURE—A CRYSTAL GAZING......Page 491
Looking for a Pepper Ideotype......Page 492
REFERENCES......Page 495
ii) Nutrition and nutrition management......Page 496
iv) Diseases and insect pests......Page 497
Socioeconomic Constraints......Page 498
The Extension-cum-Educational Constraints......Page 499
YIELD GAPS IN PEPPER......Page 500
REFERENCES......Page 502
THE BETEL LEAF (Piper betle L.)......Page 503
Chemical Composition......Page 505
Blanching (Bleaching) of Betel Leaves......Page 506
Uses......Page 507
Chemistry and Pharmacology......Page 508
Uses......Page 509
CUBEB OR TAILED PEPPER (Piper cubeba L.)......Page 510
KAWA—Piper methysticum G. Forst......Page 511
P. decurrens DC.......Page 512
REFERENCES......Page 513
2. Normative References......Page 516
4.1 Description......Page 517
4.5 Whole pepper categories......Page 518
6. Test Methods......Page 519
A.2.1 Test portion......Page 520
B.3.2 Balance......Page 521
ANNEX E (Informative)......Page 522
1. Scope......Page 523
3. Definitions......Page 524
4.3 Absence of mould, insects, etc......Page 525
5. Sampling......Page 526
7.2 Marking of whole or ground pepper......Page 527
A.4.1 Determination......Page 528
Recommendations for Storage and Transport......Page 529
Main Producing Countries and Currents Trade-names of Grades......Page 530