Black in Blue: African-American Police Officers and Racism

Book Cover......Page 1
Half-Title......Page 2
Title......Page 3
Copyright......Page 4
Contents......Page 5
Preface......Page 6
Acknowledgments......Page 14
INTRODUCTION: THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND......Page 15
The White Policing Syndrome: Negative Views of Black Communities......Page 18
Contemporary Evidence of Discrimination in Policing......Page 20
Images of White Police Officers in Communities of Color......Page 22
BLACK POLICE OFFICERS: A BRIEF HISTORY......Page 23
Contending with Barriers to Hiring and Promotions: Federal Intervention......Page 24
The Value of Black Officers: Local Black Communities......Page 26
Research on Women Officers......Page 28
Systemic Racism......Page 29
The Centrality and Character of Experiential Racism......Page 31
Recurring Experience with Racial Discrimination: Some Illustrative Examples......Page 33
The Cumulative Character of Experiential Racism......Page 34
Gaining Knowledge of Racism: Cumulative and Collective......Page 35
Contexts of Contemporary Racism: White Networks and Networking......Page 37
The Minds of White Folk: Problematization and Denigration of African Americans......Page 40
Racial Discrimination: Exclusion, Marginalization, and Retaliation......Page 41
Responding to Racism: Black Agency and Resistance......Page 42
BLACK OFFICERS IN WHITE INSTITUTIONS: THE RESPONDENTS......Page 43
CONCLUSION......Page 46
2. Everyday Racism on the Force......Page 48
Life under Segregation: Lessons for Survival......Page 49
Hard Family Lessons: Past and Present......Page 52
Learning about Racism in Civil Rights Struggles......Page 54
Lessons from the History of Policing in Black Communities......Page 56
Lessons about Racism from Black Religious and Educational Settings......Page 59
Lessons from Employment Settings: The Importance of More Experienced Officers......Page 61
Lessons from Equal Opportunity Courses and Programs......Page 65
Further Lessons on Racism: The Mass Media......Page 67
DEVELOPING AND HONING EVALUATION ABILITIES......Page 70
Developing Evaluation Abilities......Page 71
Methods of Analysis Gleaned from Everyday Experience......Page 74
Learning to Interpret Racial Stereotyping......Page 77
ASSESSING STRUCTURAL FACTORS......Page 80
Understanding and Evaluating Institutional Racism......Page 82
The Importance of Economic and Political Contexts......Page 84
Understanding Federal and Agency Pressures for Change......Page 86
Variations by Location of Police Agencies......Page 90
Variations in Discrimination by Education and Gender......Page 91
INTERNAL UNDERSTANDINGS: DIFFERENCES AMONG BLACK OFFICERS......Page 93
CONCLUSION: SEEING AND UNDERSTANDING EVERYDAY RACISM......Page 96
3. Problems of the White Mind: Perspectives of Black Officers......Page 99
Defining African Americans as Uncivilized......Page 100
Defining African Americans as Backward......Page 102
White Accusations of Black Language Deficiency......Page 104
WHITE NOTIONS OF BLACK CRIMINALITY......Page 106
The Impact of the Criminality Stereotype: Action in Public Places......Page 107
DENIGRATION OF BLACK PERSONALITY AND PERSPECTIVES......Page 111
Negative Images of Black Officers’ Abilities: The White Public......Page 112
Allegations of Personal Unreliability and Inferiority......Page 115
Working Harder to Disprove Stereotypes......Page 118
WHITES’ QUESTIONING RACISM AND AFRICAN AMERICANS......Page 121
CONCLUSION......Page 124
4. Racial Barriers in Police Departments......Page 126
WHITE NETWORKING IN THE WORKPLACE......Page 127
Old Boy Networking in Law Enforcement Agencies......Page 129
Maintaining Social Segregation......Page 130
Not Actively Seeking Black Recruits......Page 133
Other Hiring Barriers......Page 135
Educational and Other Barriers in Recruitment......Page 137
Bias in Field Training Programs......Page 139
Biased Evaluations of Training and Performance......Page 143
Blas in Departmental Disciplinary Practices......Page 145
Bureaucratic Discouragement of Promotions......Page 147
Exclusion from Key Promotions and Positions of Authority......Page 148
Discriminatory Policing Assignments......Page 155
Exclusion from Specialized Positions......Page 159
Limiting the Authority of Black Officers......Page 162
Tokenism and Pressures to Be the “Good Black”......Page 165
Forms of Deception......Page 167
Being Ignored by Whites: Isolation Inside and Outside the Workplace......Page 169
Whites’ Avoiding Contacts: Maintaining Social Distance......Page 170
Pay and Benefits......Page 173
Pressures for Early Retirement......Page 174
CONCLUSION......Page 176
5. A Hostile Racial Climate......Page 179
HOSTILE WORKPLACE CLIMATES: WHITES PLAYING THE “RACE CARD”......Page 180
Racist Talk, Jokes, and Cartoons......Page 181
Name-Calling and Verbal Threats from White Officers......Page 186
Treating Black Officers with Insensitivity and Disrespect......Page 188
Keeping Black Officers under Close Control......Page 193
Authoritarian Actions of Whites: Black Officers and Civilians......Page 194
Open Hostility and Harassment from White Officers......Page 196
Reluctance to Desegregate Agencies......Page 198
Expecting Support and Gratitude from Black Officers......Page 199
White Backlash: Self-Pity and “Reverse Discrimination”......Page 200
Anger at Black Officers Who Point Out Racism......Page 202
Retaliation against Those Who Protest......Page 204
White Fear of Black Officers’ Unity and Independence......Page 207
POLICE BRUTALITY: BLACK OFFICERS’ PERSPECTIVES......Page 209
CONCLUSION......Page 214
6. Black Officers Transform Policing......Page 217
ACCOUNTS OF RESISTANCE: BREAKING DOWN SEGREGATION......Page 219
The Importance of Officers’ Backgrounds......Page 222
The Importance of Self-Image and Self-Esteem......Page 224
Tailoring Responses to Situations......Page 228
Managing and Enduring Everyday Racism......Page 230
Active Confrontation: Combatting Everyday Racism......Page 233
Improving One’s Readiness: Education and Training......Page 237
Personal Goals Are Linked with Collective Goals......Page 239
The Importance of Mutual Support......Page 242
Formal Organizations and Associations......Page 244
LEGAL PROTECTION AND LAWSUITS......Page 248
BUILDING AND SECURING BLACK LEADERSHIP......Page 252
The Provision of Social and Educational Services......Page 257
COMMUNITY-ORIENTED POLICING STRATEGIES (COPS)......Page 261
CONCLUSION......Page 263
7. A Better Future for All Americans......Page 267
KNOWLEDGE ABOUT EVERYDAY RACISM......Page 269
DENIGRATION OF CULTURE AND PERSONALITY......Page 271
MARGINALIZATION, EXCLUSION, AND RETALIATION......Page 273
BLACK AGENCY AND RESISTANCE......Page 276
IMPLICATIONS FOR PUBLIC POLICY......Page 277
Listening to Experienced Black Voices......Page 278
Expanding Learning about Racism......Page 281
Taking Action at the Top: Specific Strategies against Everyday Racism......Page 282
CONCLUSION......Page 286
ENDNOTES......Page 289
INDEX......Page 302