Bitemark evidence : a color atlas and text

Table of Contents......Page 6
Foreword to the Second Edition......Page 12
Foreword to the First Edition......Page 14
Preface......Page 16
Acknowledgments......Page 20
Contributors......Page 22
Section I: A Historical Perspective......Page 25
1. History of Bitemark Evidence......Page 27
1.2.1 From the Beginning through the Middle Ages......Page 28
1.2.3 Other Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century Cases......Page 31
1.2.4 Additional Cases......Page 33
1.3.2 Wayne Clifford Boden, 1968–1971 (Canada)......Page 34
1.3.4 People v. Marx, 1974 (California)......Page 35
1.3.6 Other Significant Cases......Page 36
1.3.7 Cases in Modern Europe and the United Kingdom......Page 39
1.3.8 Cases in Modern Africa......Page 40
1.3.9 Cases in Modern Australia......Page 41
1.4.5 American Board of Forensic Odontology......Page 42
1.5.3 University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio Dental School......Page 43
1.6.2 National Academy of Sciences 2009 Report......Page 44
References......Page 45
Section II Bitemark Recognition......Page 47
2.2 Child Abuse......Page 49
2.3 Intimate Partner Abuse......Page 51
2.4 Bitemarks in Elder Abuse......Page 52
2.5 Conclusion......Page 53
References......Page 54
3.1 Death Investigative Systems......Page 57
3.3 The Florida Model......Page 58
3.5 Forensic Odontology Service Unavailable......Page 59
3.7 Bitemarks......Page 61
3.9 Pattern Variables......Page 63
References......Page 64
4.1 Introduction......Page 67
4.3.3 Law Enforcement Officials and Crime Scene Investigators......Page 68
4.4.1 Initial Forensic Dental Evaluation......Page 69
4.5.2 Protocol Development Phase......Page 71
References......Page 72
Section III Description of the Bitemark......Page 75
5.2 Spelling......Page 77
5.4 Demographics......Page 78
5.7 Class Characteristics of the Human Cutaneous Bitemark......Page 79
5.8.2 Linear Abrasions and Contusions......Page 81
5.8.7 Tooth Indentations......Page 82
5.8.9 Multiple and Superimposed Bites......Page 83
5.8.12 Partial Bitemarks......Page 84
5.8.15 Healed Bitemarks......Page 85
5.10 Dog Bites......Page 86
References......Page 88
6.2 Quality of the Bitemark......Page 91
6.3 Profiling the Biter......Page 92
6.4 Maintaining Perspective......Page 93
References......Page 94
Section IV: Collection of Bitemark Evidence: A: Noninvasive Analyses......Page 95
7. Photography......Page 97
7.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum: What It Means to Forensic Photography......Page 98
7.2.2 Absorption......Page 99
7.4 Digital Photographic Systems......Page 101
7.4.1 Professional, Pro-sumer, and Consumer Cameras......Page 102
7.4.2 Lenses......Page 103
7.5 Forensic Photographic Protocol......Page 104
7.6 Visible Spectrum Imaging......Page 105
7.7 Digital Image Acquisition......Page 106
7.7.2 Pixels and Color......Page 107
7.7.4 Resolution and Compression......Page 108
7.7.6 Lens Magnification......Page 109
7.7.8 Saving Digital Images......Page 110
7.8 Considerations for Digital Photography in Order of Importance......Page 111
7.8.1 Alternate Light Imaging......Page 113
7.8.2 Digital ALI Technique for Bitemark Photography......Page 115
7.9 Nonvisible Light Photography: Infrared Technique......Page 118
7.9.2 Infrared Photography Technique......Page 119
7.10 Reflective Ultraviolet Digital Photography......Page 120
7.10.1 Ultraviolet Digital Photography Armamentarium......Page 121
7.11 Application of Photographic Techniques Other Than for Bitemarks......Page 122
References......Page 126
8.2 Infrared Photography......Page 127
8.3 Ultraviolet Photography......Page 128
8.4 Alternate Light Imaging Photography......Page 131
Reference......Page 134
9.1 Introduction......Page 135
9.2.1 Image Processing......Page 136
9.2.2 Image Analysis......Page 139
9.3 Standards......Page 140
9.4.2 Image Acquisition and Archival......Page 141
9.4.3 Image Enhancement Documentation......Page 145
9.5 Software Resources......Page 147
9.5.4 Graphical Interface and Ease of Use......Page 148
9.5.8 Audit Trails......Page 149
9.5.10 Open Source versus Proprietary......Page 150
References......Page 151
10.1 Introduction......Page 155
10.2.1 Unstimulated Salivary Flow......Page 156
10.2.3 Saliva Physiology......Page 157
10.3.2 Locating Saliva Evidence......Page 158
10.4 Recovery of Saliva......Page 159
10.5 DNA Analysis......Page 160
10.7.1 Salivary DNA from a Submerged Body......Page 161
10.7.3 Saliva from Bites Corroborates Conclusions from Physical Comparison......Page 162
10.7.4 DNA from a Bitemark in Cheddar Cheese......Page 163
Acknowledgments......Page 165
References......Page 166
11.2 Materials......Page 169
11.4 Impression Techniques......Page 170
11.5 Storage......Page 174
References......Page 175
12.3 Replication Technique......Page 177
12.5 Scanning Electron Microscope......Page 179
12.6 Skin Surface Details Revealed by SEM......Page 180
References......Page 182
13.1 Bitemarks on Nonperishables......Page 183
13.2 Factors Affecting Bitemarks in Perishables......Page 184
13.3 Preservation, Storage, and Transportation of Perishables......Page 186
References......Page 187
Section IV: Collection of Bitemark Evidence: B: Invasive Analyses......Page 189
14.2 Skin Wetness......Page 191
14.4 Bitemark Removal......Page 192
14.4.1 Ring Techniques and Adhesion......Page 194
14.4.2 Tissue Excision......Page 201
14.5 Tissue Fixation......Page 202
14.8 Transillumination......Page 204
14.9 The Microscope......Page 206
14.10 Histology......Page 209
14.11 Postfixation and Storage......Page 210
References......Page 217
15.3 Components of a Bitemark: Gross Appearance......Page 219
15.5 Contusion/Bruise......Page 220
15.8.1 Bruise......Page 221
15.8.3 Literature Reviews......Page 222
15.12 The Value of Microscopic Study......Page 223
15.15 Acute Bitemark Histopathology Is Unique......Page 224
15.16 Healing Bitemark......Page 227
References......Page 229
Section V: Bitemark Variables and Cases......Page 231
16.2.2 Fatal Aquatic Animal Bites......Page 233
16.3.1 Nonfatal Animal Bites......Page 235
16.3.2 Fatal Animal Bites......Page 236
16.5 Animal Bite Victim Evidence......Page 239
References......Page 240
17.2 The Carnivore......Page 241
17.2.3 The Canine......Page 242
17.2.4 Nonfatal Canine Attack......Page 247
17.2.5 Fatal Canine Attack......Page 248
17.2.6 Deathbed Bitemarks......Page 250
17.3 Forensic Nightmare: Misdiagnosis......Page 252
17.3.3 Direction of Wound Patterning on the Neck......Page 254
17.3.5 Clothing......Page 256
17.3.8 The Skull and Cervical Vertebra: Holes and Bitemarks......Page 257
17.3.11 The Avulsed Scalp......Page 259
17.3.12 Size of Defect on the Skull versus Avulsed Scalp......Page 260
17.3.14 Tissue Vitality and Transillumination......Page 261
17.3.15 Failures of the First Autopsy......Page 262
17.3.17 Forensic Lessons to Be Learned......Page 263
References......Page 264
18.1 Introduction......Page 265
18.2 Factors Affecting Bitemark Dynamics......Page 266
18.3 Alive Recipient of the Bitemark......Page 267
18.3.1 Child......Page 268
18.3.2 Adult......Page 269
18.3.3 Specialized Hospital Centers......Page 270
18.5 Deceased Recipient of the Bitemark......Page 271
18.7 Hair......Page 272
18.8 Orifices......Page 273
18.9 Amputation/Avulsion......Page 275
18.11 Dentition......Page 277
18.13 Bite Overlap......Page 283
18.14 Pigmentation......Page 284
18.15 Photographic Perspectives......Page 285
18.16 Healing and Old Bitemarks......Page 287
18.17 Antemortem Bitemarks......Page 288
18.18 Postmortem Trauma......Page 290
18.19 Clothing......Page 292
18.21 Self-Inflicted Bitemarks......Page 293
18.22 Multiple Bitemarks......Page 294
18.23 Muscle......Page 295
18.26 New Evidence......Page 296
18.29 Single Arch Bite......Page 297
18.30 Circumferential versus Linear Distance......Page 298
18.33 Positional Changes......Page 299
18.35 One-Sided Bite......Page 300
References......Page 305
19.2 Healing Lesions......Page 307
19.4 Patterned Injuries on the Deceased......Page 308
19.4.1 Passive Compression......Page 312
19.4.2 Medical Conditions, Treatment, Autopsy Trauma, and Other Objects......Page 318
19.4.3 Unspecified Marks and Lesions......Page 320
19.5 Summary......Page 322
References......Page 323
Section VI: Research......Page 325
20.1 NAS Report Overview......Page 327
20.1.1 Forensic Odontology......Page 328
20.2.1 Resolution......Page 330
20.2.3 Representation of the Dentition......Page 331
20.3.1 Viscoelasticity......Page 333
20.3.3 Anisotropy......Page 334
20.3.5 Laceration......Page 335
20.3.7 Correcting for Distortion......Page 336
20.3.10 Implications......Page 337
References......Page 339
21. Research, Emerging Technologies, and Recent Developments......Page 341
21.1 History from 1970......Page 342
21.3 ABFO Bitemark Workshops......Page 344
21.4.2 Comments on the Selection of Preorthodontic Models......Page 347
21.6 NIJ and Tom\'s Toolbox, 2006......Page 348
21.7 Avon, 2007......Page 350
21.8.1 AAFS Position Statement, 2009......Page 351
21.10.2 Clothing......Page 352
21.10.3 Hair Presence and Removal......Page 354
21.10.6 Disproportionate Dimensional Distortion......Page 355
21.10.7 Bitemark Profiling......Page 356
21.10.8 Lingual Markings......Page 357
21.10.12 Ears and Cartilage......Page 359
21.10.16 Bitemark Orientation......Page 360
21.10.19 Contusion within a Bitemark......Page 361
21.10.21 Lividity......Page 363
21.10.22 Freezing......Page 364
21.11 Bitemark Comparison......Page 365
21.12 Summary......Page 370
References......Page 452
22.2.1 The Epidermis......Page 457
22.2.2 The Dermis......Page 458
22.2.3 The Hypodermis......Page 459
22.3.1 The Architecture of a Bitemark......Page 460
22.3.3 Lividity......Page 461
22.3.4 Age and Vitality......Page 462
22.4.2 Freezing Artifacts......Page 464
22.4.3 Principal Observations......Page 465
22.5.1 Bitemark on a Young Adult......Page 466
22.5.2 Bitemark on a Young Child......Page 467
22.6 Conclusion......Page 470
Acknowledgments......Page 475
References......Page 476
23.1 Introduction......Page 477
23.3 Pioneering Work......Page 478
23.5 Genotypic Identification of Oral Streptococci......Page 479
References......Page 483
Section VII: Collection of Evidence from the Suspect......Page 485
24.3 Standard/Digital Photography......Page 487
24.7 Study Casts......Page 489
References......Page 490
Section VIII: Methods of Comparison......Page 491
25.1 Introduction......Page 493
25.2.3 Styrofoam......Page 494
25.2.4 Dental Impression Materials......Page 495
25.2.8 Dynamic Test Bites on a Volunteer......Page 496
25.4 Dental Nomenclature......Page 497
25.5 Inverting Cast (Flip Horizontal) for Comparison......Page 498
25.6.1 Simple Overlays......Page 499
25.6.2 Computer-Generated Overlays......Page 500
25.7 Metric Analysis......Page 504
25.9.1 Pattern Analysis in Three Dimensions......Page 505
25.9.4 The Dental Line-Up......Page 507
25.10 Pattern Recognition Ability......Page 508
25.11 Conclusion......Page 510
References......Page 511
Section IX: The Reports......Page 515
26.3 Basic Qualities of the Forensic Report......Page 517
26.4.1 Preparation......Page 518
26.7 Comparison......Page 519
References......Page 520
Section X: Prevention and Contamination......Page 521
27.2 Personnel......Page 523
27.4 At Autopsy......Page 524
27.6 Impressions and Casts......Page 525
References......Page 527
Section XI: Legal Considerations and the Courtroom......Page 529
28.2 Why Do Almost Half of All Experts Get It Wrong?......Page 531
28.3.2 Justice versus Truth......Page 532
28.3.3 The Adversarial System......Page 533
28.4.3 The Importance of Objectivity......Page 534
28.5.1 Different Rules for Different Roles......Page 535
28.5.3 The Court-Appointed Expert: A Solution to All the Problems?......Page 536
28.6 Effective Presentation versus Factual Advocacy......Page 537
28.7 How to Approach Serving as an Expert Witness in a Bitemark Case......Page 538
References......Page 539
29.1 Introduction......Page 541
29.2 Foundation......Page 543
29.3 Qualification of the Expert......Page 546
29.4 Forensic Dentistry and \"Degree of Certainty\"......Page 547
29.5 Battling Experts......Page 549
29.6 Qualifying to Testify, Particularly the First Time, for an Expert......Page 553
29.7 Admission versus Weight of the Expert\'s Testimony and Opinion......Page 556
29.8 Beyond Linkage......Page 557
29.9 Linkage to Objects Other Than Teeth......Page 558
29.10 Even Further beyond Linkage......Page 560
29.11 Expert for the Prosecution but Not the Defense......Page 561
29.12 Testing the Expert......Page 562
References......Page 563
30.1 Forming a Valid Contract......Page 567
30.2 Oral versus Written Contracts......Page 568
30.3 The Offer......Page 569
30.4 The Acceptance......Page 570
30.6 Defenses to a Valid Contract......Page 572
30.7 Remedies for Breach......Page 575
30.8 Typical Parts of a Contract......Page 580
30.9 Sample Contract......Page 582
Consultant Agreement......Page 583
References......Page 584
31.3 The Expert Witness......Page 585
31.5 Courtroom Aids......Page 586
References......Page 591
32.2 Changing Concepts Regarding Absolute Immunity......Page 593
32.3 Expert Witness Immunity Specific to Dentists......Page 595
32.4 What Does This Mean for the Expert?......Page 597
References......Page 599
33.2 The Anatomy of a Wrongful Conviction......Page 601
33.3 Bitemarks and Wrongful Convictions......Page 602
33.4.1 Erroneous Bitemark Opinions Overturned by DNA Evidence......Page 603
References......Page 606
Section XII: Contentious Issues......Page 609
34.1 Introduction......Page 611
34.2.4 Sensitivity and Specificity......Page 612
34.2.5 Receiver Operator Characteristics......Page 614
34.3 Reliability, Daubert, and the Law Courts: The New Gatekeepers of Forensic Science?......Page 615
34.4.1 Whittaker, 1975......Page 616
34.4.2 Pretty and Sweet, 2001......Page 617
34.4.3 The ABFO Bitemark Workshop, Arheart and Pretty, 2001......Page 618
34.5 Statistics and Bitemarks......Page 620
34.6 Summary......Page 621
References......Page 622
35.3 Human Skin as a Bite Registration Material......Page 625
35.4.1 Physical Comparisons......Page 630
35.4.2 Molecular Biological Techniques......Page 631
35.6 Uniqueness of the Human Dentition......Page 632
References......Page 636
Section XIII: Appendices......Page 639
Appendix 1: ABFO Bitemark Analysis Guidelines-Outline......Page 641
Appendix 2: ABFO Guidelines for Investigative and Final Bitemark Reports......Page 643
Appendix 3: Bitemark Checklist-Bitemark Recipient......Page 645
Appendix 4: Bitemark Checklist-Suspected Biter......Page 649
Appendix 5: Sample Consent Form......Page 653
Appendix 6: Dental Nomenclature......Page 655