Biotechnology in Agriculture and Food Processing: Opportunities and Challenges

Contents......Page 4
Preface......Page 6
Acknowledgments......Page 8
Editors......Page 9
Contributors......Page 11
Part I: Fundamental Concepts......Page 15
1. Biotechnology and Its Role in Agriculture and Food Processing......Page 16
1.1 Concept of Biotechnology......Page 17
1.2 Historical Developments......Page 18
1.3 Interdisciplinary Nature of Biotechnology......Page 19
1.4 Biotechnology in Agriculture......Page 20
1.4.1 Biotechnological Techniques in Agriculture......Page 21
1.5 Biotechnology in Food Processing......Page 28
1.5.1 Milk Processing......Page 29
1.5.2 Cereal Processing......Page 31
1.5.3 Fruit and Vegetable Processing......Page 32
1.5.4 Meat and Fish Processing......Page 33
1.5.5 Production of Single Cell Protein......Page 34
1.5.6 Production of Food Additives......Page 35
1.5.7 Production of Alcoholic Beverages......Page 44
1.6 Impact of Genomics on Agriculture and Food Processing......Page 45
1.7 Summary and Future Prospects......Page 47
References......Page 48
2.1 Introduction......Page 58
2.2.2 Next Generation Sequencing-Facilitated Crop Improvement......Page 61
2.2.3 Next Generation Sequencing Techniques for Identifying Genomic Markers......Page 64
2.2.4 Genotyping by Sequencing......Page 65
2.2.5 Mapping by Genome-Wide Association Studies......Page 66
2.2.6 Genomic Selection......Page 67
2.3.1 Humanitarian Golden Rice Initiative......Page 68
2.3.2 GMOs within the Biological Species Concept......Page 69
2.3.3 Improving Nutritional Qualities of Crop Varieties by Mutagenesis......Page 70
2.3.4 Targeting Induced Local Lesions in Genomes......Page 71
2.3.7 Genomic Analysis of Nutrient Availability during Food Processing and Storage......Page 72
2.3.8 Microbial Genomics for Efficient Food Processing......Page 73
2.3.9 Microbial Genomics in Food Safety......Page 74
2.4 Summary and Future Prospects......Page 75
References......Page 76
Part II: Biotechnology in Agriculture......Page 84
3. Plant Cell and Tissue Culture Techniques in Crop Improvement......Page 85
3.1 Introduction......Page 87
3.2.1 Plant Cell and Tissue Culture Nutrient Medium......Page 88
3.2.2 Techniques of Plant Cell Culture......Page 89
3.2.3 Applications of Cell Culture......Page 90
3.2.4 Successful Case Studies......Page 91
3.3 Meristem Culture......Page 94
3.3.1 Methods for Virus Elimination......Page 95
3.4 Micropropagation......Page 97
3.4.1 Micropropagation Systems......Page 98
3.4.2 Stages of Micropropagation......Page 99
3.4.4 Successful Case Study......Page 105
3.5 Anther Culture and Haploid Production......Page 107
3.5.2 Culture Media and Nutritional Requirements......Page 108
3.5.4 Applications of Haploid Plants......Page 111
3.5.5 Successful Case Studies......Page 112
3.6 Embryo Culture......Page 113
3.6.3 Applications of Embryo Culture......Page 114
3.7 Protoplast Culture and Somatic Cell Hybridization......Page 116
3.7.1 Isolation, Culture, and Regeneration of Protoplasts......Page 117
3.7.3 Protoplast Fusion......Page 118
3.7.4 Cybridization......Page 120
3.7.5 Identification and Selection of Heterokaryons or Hybrid Cells......Page 121
3.7.7 Application of Somatic Hybrids......Page 122
3.8 Somaclonal Variations......Page 124
3.8.1 Factors Affecting Somaclonal Variation......Page 126
3.8.2 Detection and Isolation of Somaclonal Variations......Page 127
3.8.3 Applications of Somaclonal Variations......Page 128
3.9 Summary and Future Prospects......Page 129
References......Page 131
4.1 Introduction......Page 144
4.2 History of Plant Genetic Transformation......Page 147
4.3.1 Understanding Basic Plant Biology......Page 149
4.3.2 Applied Plant Biotechnology......Page 151
4.4 Methods for Developing Transgenic Plants......Page 152
4.4.1 Agrobacterium Transformation......Page 153
4.4.2 Biolistic Transformation and Chloroplast Genetic Engineering......Page 155
4.4.3 Other Means of Plant Transformation......Page 156
4.5 Post-Transformation Steps in Developing Transgenic Plants......Page 157
4.5.1 Selection of the Modified Plant Cells and Regeneration......Page 158
4.5.3 Transgene Regulation for Commercialization......Page 159
4.6 Plant Trait Modification through Genetic Transformation......Page 160
4.6.1 Herbicide Tolerance......Page 168
4.6.2 Insect and Disease Resistance......Page 169
4.6.3 Quality Improvement......Page 170
4.6.4 Abiotic Stress Tolerance......Page 171
4.7 Conclusions and Future Prospects......Page 172
References......Page 173
5.1 Introduction......Page 180
5.2.1 Nitrogen-Fixing Microorganisms......Page 181
5.2.2 Phosphate- Solubilizing Bacteria......Page 185
5.2.3 Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza......Page 186
5.2.5 Microbial Consortia......Page 187
5.3 Benefits of Biofertilizers......Page 188
5.4 Production Technology......Page 189
5.4.3 Preparation of Mother Culture......Page 190
5.4.5 Mixing of Culture with Carrier Material and Packing......Page 192
5.4.6 Quality Control......Page 193
5.5 Global Status......Page 194
5.6 Constraints......Page 196
5.7 Summary and Future Prospects......Page 197
References......Page 198
6.1 Introduction......Page 202
6.2.1 Selection of Strain......Page 206
6.2.2 Production Technology......Page 210
6.2.3 Downstream Processing......Page 211
6.3 Mode of Action of Crystal Proteins......Page 216
6.4 Marketing Constraints/Challenges in Biopesticide Development......Page 217
6.5 Advantages of Biopesticides......Page 218
6.5.3 Residual Effect......Page 219
6.7 Summary and Future Prospects......Page 220
References......Page 221
Part III: Biotechnology in Food Processing......Page 227
7. Production of Fermented Foods......Page 288
7.2 Fermentation Technologies in Food Preparation......Page 290
7.2.2 Solid- State Fermentation......Page 291
7.3.1 Bacteria......Page 292
7.3.2 Yeasts......Page 294
7.4.2 Moisture Content......Page 295
7.4.6 Biological Structures......Page 296
7.5 Starter Cultures and Their Role......Page 297
7.5.2 Preparation of Starter Cultures......Page 298
7.6.1 Fermented Milk Products......Page 299
7.6.2 Fermented Cereal Products......Page 314
7.6.3 Fermented Legume Products......Page 322
7.6.4 Fermented Cereal–Legume Products......Page 329
7.6.5 Fermented Vegetable Products......Page 332
7.6.6 Meat and Fish Products......Page 334
7.7 Nutritional and Health Benefits of Fermented Foods......Page 336
7.8 Food Safety Aspects of Fermented Foods......Page 337
7.9 Summary and Future Prospects......Page 338
References......Page 339
8. Functional Foods......Page 348
8.1 Introduction......Page 349
8.2 Definition of Functional Foods......Page 350
8.4 Prebiotics......Page 351
8.4.1 Common Properties of Prebiotics......Page 352
8.4.2 Classification of Prebiotics......Page 353
8.4.3 Role of Prebiotics in Human Health......Page 355
8.5 Probiotics......Page 356
8.5.2 Criteria for Probiotic Strains......Page 358
8.6.3 Reduction of Lactose Intolerance......Page 359
8.6.7 Protection against Allergies/Eczema......Page 360
8.7 Synergistic Effect of Combination of Prebiotics and Probiotics as Synbiotic......Page 361
8.7.1 Possible Clinical Applications of Synbiotic Health Food......Page 362
8.7.2 Mode of Action of Synbiotics......Page 363
8.8 Nutraceuticals......Page 364
8.8.1 Classification of Nutraceuticals......Page 365
8.8.2 Nutraceuticals and Human Health......Page 366
8.8.3 Bioproduction of Nutraceuticals......Page 367
8.8.5 Safety......Page 370
8.9.1 Omega-3 Fatty Acids......Page 371
8.9.2 Isoflavones......Page 374
8.9.4 Flavonoids......Page 375
8.9.5 Carotenoids......Page 376
8.9.6 Limonoids......Page 377
8.9.8 Curcumin......Page 378
8.9.10 Isothiocyanates......Page 379
8.9.13 Phytosterols and Phytostanols......Page 380
8.9.14 Proteins and Peptides......Page 381
8.9.15 Fiber......Page 383
8.10 Summary and Future Prospects......Page 384
References......Page 385
9.1 Introduction......Page 398
9.3 Mechanism of Enzyme Action......Page 399
9.4 Enzyme Engineering......Page 401
9.5 Production and Purification of Enzymes......Page 402
9.6 Enzyme Immobilization Techniques......Page 404
9.7.1 Meat Processing......Page 406
9.7.2 Enzymes in Milk and Cheese Industries......Page 407
9.7.3 Enzymes in Baking Industry......Page 408
9.7.4 Enzymes in Fruit Juice Industry......Page 410
9.7.5 Enzymes in Wine Production......Page 411
9.8 Enzyme Biosensors......Page 414
References......Page 416
10.1 Introduction......Page 423
10.2 Xanthan......Page 431
10.3 Gellan......Page 434
10.4 Cyanobacterial Polysaccharides......Page 436
10.5 Polysaccharides from Lactic Acid Bacteria......Page 437
10.6 Hyaluronic Acid......Page 438
10.7.1 Xylinan......Page 440
10.7.2 Dextrans......Page 441
10.7.3 Pullulan......Page 442
10.8 Polysaccharide Vaccines......Page 443
References......Page 445
11.1 Introduction......Page 454
11.2.1 Saccharides......Page 456
11.2.2 Nonsaccharides......Page 458
11.3 Sweeteners from Starch......Page 464
11.3.1 Corn/Glucose Syrups and Maltose Syrups......Page 466
11.3.2 Production of High-Fructose Corn Syrups......Page 469
11.4 Invert Sugar......Page 471
11.5 Fructose Syrup from Inulin Inulin Syrup......Page 473
11.6 Summary and Future Prospects......Page 476
References......Page 477
12. Production of Biocolors......Page 483
12.1 Introduction......Page 484
12.2.2 Fungal Metabolites......Page 487
12.2.3 Methods of Production......Page 488
12.2.4 Methods to Control Mycotoxin Production......Page 489
12.2.5 Monascus-Like Pigments from Nontoxigenic Penicillium Species......Page 490
12.3.1 Arpink Red from P. oxalicum......Page 491
12.3.2 Other Microbial Anthraquinones......Page 492
12.5 Fluorescent Pink from the Red Microalga Porphyridium, Phycobiliproteins......Page 495
12.6 Phycocyanin, the Marine Blue from Porphyridium......Page 496
12.7.1 β-Carotene......Page 498
12.7.2 Lycopene......Page 501
12.7.3 Astaxanthin......Page 503
12.7.4 Zeaxanthin......Page 504
12.7.5 Canthaxanthin......Page 505
12.8 Summary and Future Prospects......Page 506
References......Page 508
13. Production of Bioflavors......Page 512
13.1 Introduction......Page 513
13.2 Structural Classification of Flavors......Page 514
13.2.3 Lactones......Page 515
13.2.4 Terpenes......Page 516
13.2.5 Esters......Page 521
13.2.6 Carboxylic Acids......Page 522
13.3 Biotechnological Routes for the Production of Bioflavors......Page 524
13.3.2 Enzymatic Method......Page 525
13.3.3 Microbial Method......Page 528
13.4.1 Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, USA......Page 535
13.4.4 Food Sanitation Law in Japan......Page 536
13.4.5 Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards......Page 537
13.A Appendix: List of Traditional Food Preparation Processes......Page 538
References......Page 539
14. Genetically Modified Foods......Page 543
14.2.1 Genetic Modification and GM Plants of the First, Second, and Future Generations......Page 544
14.2.2 Plant Transformation Vectors and Procedures......Page 545
14.2.3 Selection and Regeneration of Plant Transformants......Page 547
14.2.5 Control of Gene Expression......Page 548
14.3 GM Crops in the World......Page 549
14.3.1 Types of GM Crops......Page 550
14.4 Benefits of GM Foods......Page 552
14.5.1 General Principles......Page 553
14.5.2 Recombinant DNA Safety......Page 556
14.5.3 World Practices in Safety Assessment of GMOs......Page 557
14.5.4 GMO Safety Assessment System in the Russian Federation......Page 558
14.5.5 Labeling Issues of GM Foods......Page 560
14.5.6 Methods for Identification and Quantification of GMOs......Page 561
14.6 Global Status of Commercialized GM Crops......Page 562
14.6.2 GM Maize......Page 563
14.6.3 GM Potato......Page 564
14.6.4 GM Cotton......Page 565
14.7 Summary and Future Prospects......Page 566
References......Page 567
Part IV: Biotechnological Management of Crop Residues and By-Products of Agro-Industries......Page 570
15. Production of Mushrooms......Page 571
15.1 Introduction......Page 572
15.2.1 Global Scenario......Page 573
15.2.2 Indian Scenario......Page 577
15.3.4 Mycorrhizal Mushrooms......Page 580
15.4.1 Substrate Preparation......Page 581
15.5.1 Growing Houses and Systems......Page 589
15.5.2 Spawn and Spawning......Page 590
15.5.6 Environmental Controls......Page 591
15.6.1 Pleurotus spp......Page 592
15.6.2 Lentinus edodes......Page 593
15.6.6 Calocybe indica......Page 594
15.7 Nutritional Value......Page 595
15.7.1 Protein......Page 596
15.7.2 Fats/Lipids......Page 597
15.7.4 Minerals and Trace Elements......Page 599
15.7.5 Vitamins......Page 600
15.8 Medicinal Value......Page 601
15.9.2 Suitable Technology......Page 606
15.9.6 Export Potential......Page 607
15.9.8 Minimum Land Use/Intensive Use of Indoor Space......Page 608
15.10 Summary and Future Prospects......Page 609
References......Page 610
16. Value Addition of Agro-Industrial Wastes and Residues......Page 618
16.1 Introduction......Page 619
16.2 Nature of Food Industry Wastes......Page 620
16.2.1 Fruit and Vegetable Industry......Page 621
16.2.3 Sugar Industry......Page 622
16.2.5 Wine Industry......Page 623
16.2.7 Meat and Poultry Processing Industry......Page 624
16.2.9 Coffee Industry......Page 625
16.3 Production of Value-Added Products......Page 626
16.3.1 Production of Single- Cell Proteins......Page 627
16.3.2 Production of Baker's Yeast......Page 629
16.3.3 Production of Organic Acids......Page 630
16.3.4 Bio-Fuel Production......Page 635
16.3.5 Production of Enzymes......Page 643
16.3.6 Production of Food Additives......Page 646
16.3.7 Production of Antibiotics......Page 650
16.4 Summary and Future Prospects......Page 651
References......Page 652
A......Page 667
B......Page 668
D......Page 670
F......Page 671
G......Page 673
I......Page 674
M......Page 675
O......Page 677
P......Page 678
S......Page 679
T......Page 680
Y......Page 681