Biotechnology : secondary metabolites. Plants and microbes

PrefaceList of Contributors1. Biotechnology for Medicinal Plants: Research NeedJ.M. Merillon and K.G. RamawatI. Introduction II. Medicinal Plants Exploration III. Resources: Wild and Cultivated Plants IV. Role of Biotechnological ApproachesDevelopment of Seed Material for DomesticationImprovement - Somaclonal Variation and GeneticEngineeringUnderstanding Metabolic PathwaysNew Compounds/Derivatives ProductionScaling-up Technology Through BioreactorsPlant Molecular FarmingMetabolomicsV. ConclusionsReferencesVI. Further Readings2. Secondary Plant Products in NatureK.G. RamawatI. IntroductionII. AlkaloidsA. DefinitionB. Biosynthesis of AlkaloidsC. Occurrence of AlkaloidsD. Distribution in Animal Kingdom and Lower PlantsE. Classifications of AlkaloidsF. Biological Functions of AlkaloidsIII. Other MetabolitesA. Plant AminesB. Non-protein Amino Acids in PlantsC. QuinonesD. ResinsE. SteroidsF. PhenylpropanoidsG. Polyisoprene (Rubber)H. PhenolicsI. Flavours and ColoursJ. Insecticides of Plant OriginIV. ConclusionsReferencesV. Further Readings3. Factors Affecting the Production ofSecondary MetabolitesK.G. Ramawat and Meeta MathurI. IntroductionII. Culture ConditionsThe EnvironmentIII. Culture InitiationIV. Time-course Study of Growth andSecondary Metabolite ProductionV. OptimizationA. Physical FactorsB. Effect of NutrientsUse of ElicitorsVII. Selection of ClonesA. Variability in Field-grown MaterialsB. State of DifferentiationC. Producer/Non-producer CellsD. Plating and SelectionVIII. Clonal StabilityIX. Flow CytometryX. Optimization and SelectionXI. Selection ParametersXII. Assessment of Somaclonal VariationXIII. ProspectsReferencesXIV. Further Readings4. Production of Food AdditivesG.A. Ravishankar, N. Bhagyalakshmi and S. Ramachandra RaoI. IntroductionII. ColoursA. AnthocyaninsB. BetalainesC. Crocin and CrocetinsD. Capsaicin and Other CapsaicinoidsIII. FlavoursA. VanillaB. Garlic and OnionIV. SweetenersA. SteviosidesB. ThaumatinV. Safety AspectsReferences5. Production of InsecticidesAmita PalI. IntroductionII. Botanical InsecticidesA. PhytoecdysteronesB. AzadirachtinC. RotenoidsD. PyrethrinsE. Nicotine and AnabasineF. QuassinG. LimoneneH. RyaniaI. SabadillaX. Optimization and SelectionXI. Selection ParametersXII. Assessment of Somaclonal VariationXIII. ProspectsReferencesXIV. Further Readings4. Production of Food AdditivesG.A. Ravishankar, N. Bhagyalakshmi and S. Ramachandra RaoI. IntroductionII. ColoursA. AnthocyaninsB. BetalainesC. Crocin and CrocetinsD. Capsaicin and Other CapsaicinoidsIII. FlavoursA. VanillaB. Garlic and OnionIV. SweetenersA. SteviosidesB. ThaumatinV. Safety AspectsReferences5. Production of InsecticidesAmita PalI. IntroductionII. Botanical InsecticidesA. PhytoecdysteronesB. AzadirachtinC. RotenoidsD. PyrethrinsE. Nicotine and AnabasineF. QuassinG. LimoneneH. RyaniaI. SabadillaVI. Accumulation of AlkaloidsA. Uptake and StorageB. PermealizationC. Site of Alkaloid AccumulationD. Phenylalkylamines (Ephedra Alkaloids)E. Pyridine AlkaloidsF. Tropane AlkaloidsG. Quinolizidine and Pyrrolizidine AlkaloidsH. Isoquinoline AlkaloidsI. Quinoline (Cinchona) AlkaloidsJ. Monoterpene Indole AlkaloidsK. Purine AlkaloidsL. Ruta AlkaloidsVII. ConclusionsVIII. ProspectsReferences8. Production of Steroids and SaponinsAnupama Wagle, G.D. Kelkar and M.R. HebleI. IntroductionII. SaponinsA. DioscoreaB. AgaveC. GlycyrrhizaD. AesculusE. PanaxIII. Cardiac GlycosidesA. DigitalisB. StrophanthusC. UrgineaIV. Other SteroidsA. Withania somniferaB. HolarrhenaC. SolanumV. ConclusionsReferences9. Understanding the Regulatory Mechanismof Secondary Metabolite ProductionJ.M. Merillon and K.G. RamawatI. IntroductionII. Plant Growth Regulators, Elicitors, Sugars and SignalTransductionIII. Protein and RNAIV. Genetic ManipulationsA. Choice of GeneB. Manipulation of Biosynthetic PathwaysV. ConclusionsReferences10. Production of Secondary Metabolites by BioconversionNiesko Pras and Herman J. WoerdenbagI. IntroductionII. General Principles of BioconversionIII. Systems Applied for BioconversionA. Freely Suspended Plant CellsB. Immobilized Plant CellsC. Enzyme PreparationsIV. Kinetics of Immobilized SystemsV. Bioconversion of Water-insoluble PrecursorsVI. Bioconversion of Synthetic PrecursorsVII. New DevelopmentsVIII. Final ConsiderationReferences11. Genetic Transformation for Production ofSecondary MetabolitesSumita JhaI. IntroductionII. Genetic Manipulation of Natural-Product PathwaysIII. Genetic Transformation for Development ofTransformed Organ Cultures using AgrobacteriumA. Relationship between Cell Organization,Differentiation and Secondary MetabolismB. Organ CulturesC. Transformed Organ CulturesD. Agrobacterium and Transformation ProcessIV. Applications of Transformed Root CulturesV. Experimental Procedure for Production ofTransformed Hairy Roots in Artemisia annua Linn.VI. Experimental Procedure for Production of TransformedShooty Teratomas in Coleus forskohlii Briq.VII. ProspectsAcknowledgementReferencesVIII. Further Reading12. Large-scale Production in BioreactorsJ.M. MerillonI. IntroductionII. Plant Cell PhysiologyIII. Plant Cell Culture ProcessesA. IntroductionB. Batch CultivationC. Multi-stage Batch CultivationD. Feed-Batch CultivationE. Continuous CultivationF. Semicontinuous CultivationG. Immobilized Cell CultivationIV. Bioreactor System Design and OperationA. SterilizationB. Oxygen SupplyC. Bioreactor TypesV. ApplicationsA. Production of Secondary MetabolitesB. Organ CultureC. Hairy Root CultureD. CommercializationV. ConclusionsReferences13. Production of Ergot Alkaloids from ClavicepsArun Kumar and R. Raj BhansaliI. IntroductionII. Historical BackgroundIII. Natural OccurrenceIV. AlkaloidsA. Formation and ProductionB. Chemical PropertiesC. Physical PropertiesD. Pharmacological PropertiesE. ChemistryF. BiosynthesisV. Artificial CultureVI. ConclusionReferences14. Lichen ProductsWanda Quilhot, Cecilia Rubio and Ernesto FernandezI. IntroductionII. Chemistry of Lichen SubstancesIII. Role of Lichen Metabolites in the Lichen ThallusIV. BiologicalA. Activity of Lichen Extracts and Lichen CompoundsB. Anticancer-Antiviral ActivityC. Inhibitory Enzyme and Antioxidant ActivityD. Analgesic, Anti-inflammatory,Antipyretic and Other MedicinalE. Antiprotozoa ActivityF. Antifeedant ActivityG. Phototoxicidal and Other Activity in PlantsH. Herbicidal ActivityI. Plant Growth ActivitiesJ. PerfumesV. The FutureReferences15. Chinese Herbal Drug Industry: Past,Present and FutureLixin Zhang and Wei JiaI. IntroductionII. The Development of the Chinese Herbal Drug IndustryIII. Modernization of TCMA. The Status of Medicinal Plant Resources in ChinaB. Status of Chinese Prepared Medicinal HerbsC. Status of TCM Manufacturing EnterprisesD. Status of Plant ExtractsE. Status of Pre-clinic and Clinical ResearchIV. The Internationalization of TCMA. Open Dialogue and Mutual UnderstandingAmong All Parties Involved in Health Care SystemB. Deciphering the Preventive Nature of TCMC. Respect and Protect Intellectual PropertyD. Safety Issues of TCM Need to be Seriously EvaluatedE. The Small Scale and Limited Capability ofHerbal Drug EnterprisesV. Closing RemarksAcknowledgmentsReferences16. Secondary Metabolites in in vitro Cultures of Rutagraveolens L. and Ruta graveolens ssp. divaricata(Tenore) GamsHalina Ekiert and Franz Ch. CzyganI. Distribution and Chemistry of the Investigated PlantsA. Ruta graveolens L. (garden rue = common rue)B. Ruta graveolens ssp. divaricata (Tenore) GamsII. Groups of Secondary Metabolites Investigated in vitro -Their Chemical Characteristics, Distribution in PlantKingdom and Biological PropertiesA. Linear FuranocoumarinsB. Phenolic AcidsC. ArbutinIII. Production of the Investigated Metabolites inPlant in vitro CulturesA. Linear FuranocoumarinsB. Phenolic AcidsC. ArbutinIV. Studies from Our LaboratoryA. Linear Furanocoumarins and other CoumarinCompounds Isolated as Main Fractions from BiomassCultured in vitroB. Accumulation of Linear FuranocoumarinsC. Accumulation of Phenolic AcidsD. Biotransformation of Hydroquinone into ArbutinV. Conclusions and ProspectsVI. ExperimentalA. Origin of Cultures Under StudyB. Initial Stationary Liquid CulturesC. Experimental CulturesAcknowledgementReferences17. Antimicrobial and Cytotoxic Activity of Extracts andSecondary Metabolites Obtained from Plants andLichens of Patagonia Austral.R.D. Enriz, M.L. Freile, E. Correche and M.J. Gomez-LechonI. IntroductionA. Natural Products as Sources for Lead StructuresB. Cell Culture Systems in Toxicity TestingII. Techniques, Material and MethodsA. Plant MaterialB. Extraction and Isolation of Test CompoundsC. Microorganisms and MediaD. Antimicrobial AssaysE. Antifungal in vivo AssayF. Antifungal ActivityG. Application of the Test CompoundsH. Acute Toxicity TestI. Toxicity of Berberine to Embryo-larvalStages of Bufo arenarum (H). Test ConditionsIII. In vitro/in vivo Antimicrobial Activity of AqueousExtracts and of Berberine Isolated from BerberisheterophillaIV. Antibacterial, Cytotoxic and Apoptotic Effects onHepatocytes of Secondary Metabolites Obtained fromLichens of PatagoniaA. Antibacterial and Cytotoxic ActivityB. Apoptotic ActivityV. Concluding RemarksAcknowledgementsReferences18. Tools and Techniques for the Study ofPlant Tissue CultureK.G. Ramawat and Meeta MathurI. MicroscopyII. MicrometryIII. Cell Counting by HaemocytometerIV. AutoradiographyV. SpectrophotometryA. UV-VIS SpectrophotometryB. Fluorescence SpectrophotometryVI. CentrifugationA. Analytical ModelB. Preparative ModelC. ApplicationD. Methods of SeparationVII. Gel FiltrationVIII. ChromatographyA. Column ChromatographyB. Paper ChromatographyC. Thin-layer ChromatographyD. Adsorption ChromatographyE. lon-exchange ChromatographyF. Affinity ChromatographyG. Gas Liquid Chromatography (GLC)H. High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)IX. Further Readings19. PracticalsK.G. RamawatI. Callus and Cell CultureA. Initiation of CallusB. Initiation of Suspension CultureC. Fresh Weight and Dry Weight DeterminationsII. Cell Viability Determination using Fluorescein DiacetateIII. Diosgenin Estimation using ColorimeterIV. Solasodine QuantificationV. Indole Alkaloid Production by Catharanthus roseusVI. TLC of Opium AlkaloidsVII. Other AlkaloidsVIII. Qualitative TestsA. Demonstration of Presence of SterolsB. Leuco-anthocyanin TestC. Saponin TestD. Phenol TestE. Flavonoid TestIX. Further ReadingsX. AnnexuresIndex