Bioremediation and natural attenuation: process fundamentals and mathematical models

Cover......Page 1
Bioremediation And Natural Attenuation - Process Fundamentals And Mathematical Models......Page 4
ISBN-13 9780471650430  ISBN-10 0471650439......Page 5
Contents......Page 8
Preface......Page 10
1.1. Environmental Contamination By Hazardous Substances: Magnitude Of The Contamination Problem......Page 12
1.1.1. Common Groundwater Pollutants......Page 14
Petroleum Hydrocarbons......Page 15
Chlorinated Compounds......Page 18
Pesticides......Page 20
1.1.2. Emerging Pollutants......Page 21
1.2. Historical Developmet Of Environmental Biotechnology And Bioremediation......Page 23
1.3. Merits And Limitations Of Bioremediation......Page 30
2 Geochemical Attenuation Mechanisms......Page 36
Alkyl Halides......Page 37
Unknown......Page 0
Amides......Page 38
Carbamates......Page 39
Organophosphate Ester......Page 40
2.1.2. Radioactive Decay......Page 41
Example 2.1 Radioactive Iodine (131i) Was Accidentally Spilled From A Hospital......Page 43
2.1.3. Chemical Reduction And Oxidation (redox) Reactions......Page 45
2.2. Immobilization And Phase Change Processes......Page 48
2.2.1. Sorption......Page 49
Natural Sorbents......Page 51
2.2.2. Precipitation......Page 52
2.2.3. Volatilization......Page 53
2.2.4. Complexation......Page 54
3 Biodegradation Principles......Page 60
3.1.1. Bacterial Physiology......Page 61
3.1.2. Bacterial Metabolism......Page 62
3.1.3. Gene Expression......Page 64
3.1.4. Definiton Of Biodegradation Terms......Page 69
1. Existence Of Organism(s) With Required Degradation Potential......Page 71
Example 3.1 Differences In The Distribution Of Dissimilar Phenotypes May Lead......Page 73
3. Accessibility Of Target Pollutants To The Microorganisms......Page 74
5. Availability Of Appropriate Electron Acceptors And/or Electron Donors......Page 75
6. Availability Of Nutrients......Page 80
8. Adequate Temperature......Page 81
3.2.1. Implications Of Recalcitrance......Page 83
3.3. Acclimation......Page 85
3.4. Common Biotransformation Mechanisms......Page 87
Example 3.2. Aerobic Biodegradation Of Alkanes. A Simple Example Of Hydroxy-......Page 89
Epoxidation......Page 92
Oxidative Ring Cleavage......Page 93
Reductive Dehalogenation......Page 96
Nitro-group Reduction......Page 98
Hydrolysis......Page 99
Dehydrohalogenation......Page 101
3.4.5. Effect Of Organic Contaminant Structure On Biodegradability......Page 102
3.5.1. Commensalism......Page 104
3.5.2. Syntrophism......Page 106
3.5.3. Interspecies Hydrogen Transfer......Page 108
3.6. Biotransformation Of Metals......Page 110
3.7. Biodegradation Kinetics......Page 111
3.8. Bioavailability......Page 115
The Best Equation......Page 116
3.9. Applying Biodegradation Kinetics To Fate And Transport Modeling......Page 119
4.1. Introduction......Page 126
4.2. Groundwater Concepts 4.2.1. Hydraulic Head......Page 130
4.2.2. Darcy’s Law......Page 135
4.2.3. Hydraulic Conductivity......Page 136
4.2.4. Heterogeneity In Hydraulic Conductivity And Its Effect On Contaminant Transport......Page 139
4.2.5. Scale Effect In Hydraulic Conductivity......Page 141
4.2.6. Derivation Of Saturated Groundwater Flow Equation......Page 142
4.3.1. Diffusion......Page 147
Example 4.1. Prediction Of Solute Concentration Within A Clay Landfil Liner. As A Consultant, You Were Asked To Predict The Conc......Page 151
4.3.2. Advection......Page 153
Example 4.4. Mass Flux Calculation Of Agricultural Contaminants. Dissolved......Page 154
4.3.3. Hydrodynamic Dispersion......Page 155
4.3.4. Mechanical Dispersion......Page 156
4.3.5. Derivation Of The Advection–dispersion Equation For Solute Transport In Saturated Media......Page 160
4.3.7. Volatilization......Page 162
4.3.8. Dissolution......Page 163
4.3.9. Adsorption And Retardation......Page 165
Example 4.5. Estimation Of Contaminant Travel Time. A Site Has Groundwater......Page 169
4.3.10. Degradation Processes......Page 170
4.3.11. Effect Of Different Processes On The Attenuation Of Contaminant Migration......Page 172
5.1. Theoretical Background......Page 180
5.1.1. Initial And Boundary Conditions......Page 181
5.1.3. Analytical Versus Numerical Solutions......Page 185
5.2. Analytical Models For Contaminant Transport And Reaction Processes......Page 186
5.2.1. Multidimensional Transport From A Finite, Planar, Continuous Source Of Contamination Under Transient Conditions......Page 187
5.2.2. Multidimensional Transport From A Finite, Planar, Continuous Source Of Contamination Under Steady-state Conditions......Page 190
5.2.3. Multidimensional Transport From A Finite, Planar, Decaying Source Of Contamination Under Transient Conditions......Page 191
5.2.4. Multidimensional Transport From An Instantaneous Point Source Of Contamination Under Transient Conditions......Page 192
5.3. Application Of Analytical Models In Contaminant Hydrogeology......Page 194
Scenario 1: Continuous Planar Source With Constant Source Concentration......Page 195
Scenario 2: Continuous Source With Decaying Source Concentration......Page 197
Scenario 3: Continuous Radioactive Source......Page 198
5.4. Sensitivity Analysis......Page 200
5.4.1. Effect Of 50% Increase In Model Parameter Values On Plume Length......Page 201
5.4.2. Change In Plume Length Based On Varying Parameters Within Wider (typical) Ranges......Page 202
5.5. Reliability And Limitations Of Analytical Models......Page 203
5.5.2. Intrinsic Limitations Of The Analytical Model......Page 204
5.5.3. Modeling Of Benzene Biodegradation......Page 206
5.5.4. Conclusion......Page 208
6.1. Why Use Numerical Models To Predict The Fate And Transport Of Contaminants?......Page 212
6.2. The Numerical Modeling Approach: Fundamentals......Page 216
6.2.1. Finite Difference Approach......Page 218
6.2.2. Method Of Characteristics......Page 220
6.2.4. Forward Versus Inverse Problems......Page 223
Step 1. Defin The Purpose Of Modeling......Page 224
Step 2. Collection And Assessment Of Site Data......Page 225
Step 3. Development Of A Site Conceptual Model......Page 227
Step 4. Selection Of A Suitable Computational Code......Page 229
Step 5. Setting Up And Running The Numerical Model......Page 230
Step 6. Calibration Of Numerical Models......Page 231
Step 8. Model Validation......Page 233
Step 9. Prediction......Page 234
Step 11. Redesign Of Model......Page 235
6.4.2. Mt3d......Page 236
6.4.4. Rt3d......Page 237
6.4.5. Bioplume Iii......Page 238
6.5. Modeling The Natural Attenuation Of Hydrocarbons And Dnapls......Page 239
6.5.1. Mathematical Background......Page 240
6.5.2. Background On Simple Examples Solved......Page 241
Case 1: Transport Of A Nonreactive Contaminant......Page 243
Case 2: Instantaneous Aerobic Degradation......Page 244
Case 3: Btex Degradation With Multiple Electron Acceptors Under Rate-limited Conditions......Page 248
Case 4: Sequential Anaerobic Degradation Of Pce......Page 255
Case 5: Rate-limited Sorption Reaction......Page 259
Case Study 1: Rbca Tier 3 Modeling Of A Leaking Underground Storage Site (lust) Site In Western Iowa......Page 263
Case Study 2: Modeling Of Natural Attenuation Of Btex Compounds At Hill Air Force Base, Utah......Page 273
Case Study 3: Modeling Of Natural Attenuation Of Chlorinated Ethane Compounds At The Dover Site......Page 279
7 Field And Laboratory Methods To Determine Parameters For Modeling Contaminant Fate And Transport In Groundwater......Page 294
Example 7.1. Calculation Of Hydraulic Head From Pressure Measurements Made In A Well. Calculate The Hydraulic Head For A Pressur......Page 295
Example 7.2. Determination Of Hydraulic Gradient Based On Trigonometric Approach......Page 298
7.1.2. Hydraulic Conductivity ðkþ......Page 301
Grain Size Analysis......Page 304
Example 7.3. Determination Of Hydraulic Conductivity (k) Using The Hazen Method. Figure 7.10 Shows An Example Particle Size Dist......Page 306
Slug And Bail Tests......Page 307
Example 7.5. Determination Of Hydraulic Conductivity (k) Using The Bouwer And Rice Method. Use The Slug Test Data Reported In Co......Page 312
Pumping Tests......Page 314
Example 7.6. Determination Of Transmissivity T And Storativity S Using The Theis Method. A Pumping Test Is Conducted In Að Conþ......Page 318
Example 7.7. Determination Of Transmissivity ðtþ And Storativity S Using The Jacob–cooper Method. Determine The Transmissivity (......Page 324
Example 7.8. Determination Of Aquifer Parameters Of An Unconfine Aquifer Using The Neuman Method. We Utilize The Borden Test Dat......Page 330
7.1.3. Total Porosity (/) And Effective Porosity ð/eþ......Page 332
7.2. Parameters For Contaminant Transport Modeling 7.2.1. Retardation Coefficien ðrþ......Page 333
Example 7.9. Determination Of Retardation Coeffcient R . Calculate The Retar-......Page 335
Determination By Means Of Theoretical Formula......Page 338
Determination By Means Of One-dimensional Column Experiments......Page 340
7.2.3. Biodegradation Rate Coeffcient ðkþ......Page 343
Example 7.10. Determination Of Biodegradation Rate Coeffcient K . The Ben-......Page 346
Example 7.11. Determination Of L By The Tmb Normalization Method. The Ben-......Page 349
7.3. Determining If A Plume Has Reached Steady State......Page 353
Example 7.12. Determining Whether A Plume Has Reached Steady State. The......Page 354
8.1. Introduction......Page 362
8.2.1. Physicochemical Treatment......Page 364
8.2.2. Biological Treatment......Page 367
8.3. Overview Of Bioremediation Strategies......Page 369
8.3.1. Aerobic Versus Anaerobic Bioremediation......Page 370
8.3.2. Biostimulation Versus Bioaugmentation......Page 371
8.3.3. Ex Situ Versus In Situ Bioremediation......Page 372
8.3.4. Microbial Versus Plant-based Bioremediation......Page 375
8.3.5. Dealing With Heavy Metals......Page 379
8.4. General Implementation Approach For In Situ Bioremediation......Page 382
8.4.1. Site Investigation......Page 383
8.4.2. Physical Measures To Prevent Spreading Of The Contamination......Page 385
8.4.3. Choice Of Nutrient And Stimulatory Material Delivery System......Page 388
8.5. Biostimulation Systems To Treat Fuel Spills......Page 390
8.5.1. Bioventing......Page 392
Bioventing......Page 394
8.5.2. Water Recirculation Systems......Page 396
Field Design/operation......Page 400
Results......Page 402
8.5.3. Air Sparging......Page 403
Site Description......Page 410
Field Design/operation......Page 411
Results......Page 412
8.5.4. Biobarriers......Page 413
8.6. Biostimulation Systems To Treat Chlorinated Solvent Spills......Page 416
Field Design/operation......Page 418
Results......Page 419
8.7. Bioaugmentation......Page 421
Process......Page 424
Field Design/operation......Page 427
Results......Page 428
8.8. Ex Situ (aboveground) Bioremediation System......Page 429
8.8.1. Slurry Reactors......Page 431
Field Design/operation......Page 432
8.8.2. Composting......Page 433
Field Design/operation......Page 435
8.8.3. Land Farming......Page 436
Site Description......Page 437
Results......Page 438
8.9. Treatment Trains......Page 440
Site Description......Page 441
Field Design/operation......Page 442
Results......Page 443
8.10. Monitored Natural Attenuation......Page 444
8.10.1. Considerations For Mna Selection......Page 448
8.11. Political And Scientific Challenges For A Broader Implementation Of Bioremediation And Natural Attenuation......Page 455
8.11.1. Epistemology Of Bioremediation......Page 456
8.11.2. Epistemology’s Uncertainty Principle......Page 457
9.1. Introduction To Environmental Forensic Analysis......Page 468
9.2. Lines Of Evidence Of Intrinsic Bioremediation 9.2.1. Direct Evidence Of Contaminant Mass Loss In The Field......Page 471
9.2.3. Graphical And Statistical Analyses Of Contaminant Concentration Trends......Page 474
Example 9.1. Statistical Analyses (adapted From National Research Council 2000). The Examples Presented Below Show How Statistic......Page 478
Mass Budgeting......Page 479
Example 9.2. Mass Budget Analysis To Determine The Lnapl Depletion Rate (adapted From National Research Council 2000) Consider A......Page 480
Mass Flux Analysis......Page 482
9.2.5. Analytical Solute Transport Modeling Of Solute Transport......Page 485
9.2.6. Numerical Modeling Of Flow And Solute Transport......Page 486
A Word Of Caution On Using Contamination Trends In Assessing Natural Attenuation......Page 489
9.2.7. Geochemical Indicators Of Natural Attenuation......Page 491
Attenuation Of Petroleum Hydrocarbons......Page 493
Attenuation Of Chlorinated Solvents......Page 496
9.2.8. Microcosm Studies......Page 498
9.2.9. Stable Isotope Analysis......Page 500
9.2.10. Chemical Fingerprinting......Page 504
9.2.11. Microbial Analysis And Molecular Techniques......Page 509
Molecular Analyses......Page 510
9.3. Concluding Remarks......Page 524
Appendix A Chemical Properties Of Various Organic Compounds......Page 538
B.1. Definitions......Page 546
B.2. Balancing Redox Reactions......Page 547
B.3. Calculation Of Dg......Page 549
B.4. Determination Of Dg......Page 551
Appendix C Commonly Used Numerical Groundwater Flow And Solute Transport Codes*......Page 554
Appendix D Nonparametric Statistical Tests For Determining The Effectiveness Of Natural Attenuation*......Page 562
Appendix E Critical Values Of The Student T-distribution......Page 568
Glossary......Page 570
Index......Page 588