Biopolymers: Biomedical and Environmental Applications

Biopolymers: Biomedical and Environmental Applications......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
Preface......Page 19
List of Contributors......Page 23
Part 1: Polysaccharides......Page 29
1. Hyaluronic Acid: A Natural Biopolymer......Page 31
1.1 Glycosaminoglycans......Page 32
1.2 Hyaluronic Acid/Hyaluronan – Structure, Occurrence......Page 35
1.3 Hyaluronan Synthases......Page 36
1.4 Enzymatic Catabolism of Hyaluronan......Page 38
1.5 Oxidative Degradation of Hyaluronan......Page 39
1.5.1 Reaction of HA with HO. Radicals......Page 41
1.5.2 Reaction of HA with HOC1......Page 45
1.5.3 Reaction of HA with Peroxynitrite......Page 46
1.6 Hyaluronan Degradation under Inflammatory Conditions......Page 47
1.6.1 Generation of ROS under In Vivo Conditions......Page 48
1.6.2 Discussion of ROS Effects under In Vivo Conditions......Page 49
1.6.3 Cell-derived Oxidants and Their Effects on HA......Page 50
1.6.5 Extracellular Matrix......Page 51
1.7 Interaction of Hyaluronan with Proteins and Inflammatory Mediators......Page 52
1.7.2 HA Receptors – Cellular Hyaladherins......Page 53
1.8 Hyaluronan and Its Derivatives in Use......Page 54
1.8.2 Viscoprotection......Page 55
1.8.5 Electrospinning for Regenerative Medicine......Page 56
Acknowledgements......Page 57
References......Page 58
2.1 Introduction......Page 63
2.2.1 Graft Copolymerization Using Chemical Initiators......Page 64
2.2.2 Graft Copolymerization Using Radiations as Initiators......Page 66
2.3.2 Under Pressure (UP) Graft Copolymerization......Page 67
2.3.5 Graft Copolymerization Under the Influence of Microwave Radiations (MW)......Page 68
2.4.2 13C NMR......Page 70
2.4.4 XRD......Page 72
2.4.5 Thermal Studies......Page 73
2.5.1 Physical Properties......Page 74
2.5.2 Chemical Properties......Page 76
2.6.1 Sustained Drug Delivery......Page 77
2.6.5 Graft Copolymers as Reinforcing Agents in Green Composites......Page 78
References......Page 81
3.1 Introduction......Page 87
3.2 Polysaccharide Membranes......Page 88
3.2.2 Ionically Conductive Membranes......Page 89
3.3 Permselective Membranes......Page 91
3.4.1 Cation Conductive Membranes......Page 93
3.4.2 Anion Conductive Membrane......Page 94
3.6 Active Food Packaging......Page 95
3.7 Antimicrobial Films......Page 96
3.7.1 Chitosan......Page 97
3.7.2 Cellulose......Page 104
3.9 Food Packaging: Synopsis......Page 105
References......Page 106
4.1 Introduction......Page 109
4.2 Starch Structure......Page 111
4.3 Non-food Application of Starch......Page 114
4.4 Utilization of Starch in Plastics......Page 115
4.5 Some Features of the Physical Chemistry of Thermoplastic Starch Processing......Page 117
4.6 Recent Developments in Thermoplastic Starch......Page 120
4.7 Reactive Extrusion......Page 121
4.8 Conclusion......Page 122
References......Page 123
5.1 Introduction: Polysaccharides as a Material of the Future......Page 127
5.2.1 Modification by Insertion of Functional Groups onto the Polysaccharide Backbone......Page 128
5.2.2 Modification by Grafting of Chains of Another Polymeric Material onto Polysaccharide Backbone......Page 129
5.3.1 Intrinsic Viscosity......Page 138
5.3.2 Elemental Analysis......Page 139
5.3.3 FTIR Spectroscopy......Page 140
5.3.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Analysis......Page 142
5.3.5 Thermo Gravimetric Analysis (TGA)......Page 143
5.4.1 Application as Viscosifier......Page 145
5.4.2 Application as Flocculant for Water Treatment......Page 147
5.4.3 Application as Matrix for Controlled Drug Release......Page 149
References......Page 152
6.1 Introduction......Page 157
6.2 Polysachharide......Page 158
6.3 Sources of Chitin and Chitosan......Page 159
6.4 Composition of Chitin, Chitosan and Cellulose......Page 160
6.6 Chitin – Chemical Modification......Page 162
6.7.1 O-/N-carboxyalkylation......Page 163
6.7.3 Acylation......Page 164
6.7.4 Sugar-Modified Chitosan......Page 165
6.8.1 Chemical Methods......Page 166
6.8.3 Enzymatic Methods......Page 168
6.8.4 Graft Copolymerization......Page 169
6.8.5 Chitosan Crosslinking......Page 170
6.9 Applications of Chitin and Chitosan......Page 171
6.10.2 Enzyme Immobilization......Page 172
6.10.5 Wound-healing Accelerators......Page 173
6.10.6 Artificial Kidney Membrane......Page 175
6.10.7 Drug Delivery Systems......Page 177
6.10.8 Blood Anticoagulants......Page 179
6.11 Miscellaneous Applications......Page 180
6.12 Antimicrobial Properties......Page 182
6.14 Function of Plasticizers in Film Formation......Page 183
6.16 In Wastewater Treatment......Page 184
6.17 Multifaceted Derivatization Potential of Chitin and Chitosan......Page 185
6.18 Conclusion......Page 186
References......Page 187
Part 2: Bioplastics and Biocomposites......Page 195
7.1 Introduction......Page 197
7.2 Carboxylic Acids: Lactic- and Glycolic Acid......Page 198
7.2.1 Lactic- and Glycolic Acid Production......Page 199
7.3.1 Polymerization of Lactic Acid......Page 201
7.3.2 Polymerization of Glycolic Acid......Page 206
7.4 Applications......Page 208
References......Page 209
8.1 Introduction......Page 211
8.2.1 Production of Lactic Acid......Page 212
8.2.2 Synthesis of PLA......Page 214
8.3 Physical PLA Properties......Page 218
8.4.1 Amorphous Phase of PLA......Page 220
8.4.2 Crystalline Structure of PLA......Page 221
8.4.3 Crystallization Kinetics of PLA......Page 222
8.5 Mechanical Properties of PLA......Page 225
8.6.1 Gas Barrier Properties of PLA......Page 227
8.6.2 Water Vapour Permeability of PLA......Page 229
8.6.3 Permeability of Organic Vapours through PLA......Page 230
8.7 Degradation Behaviour of PLA......Page 231
8.7.2 Hydrolysis......Page 232
8.7.3 Biodegradation......Page 234
8.8 Processing......Page 236
8.9.1 Biomedical Applications of PLA......Page 238
8.9.2 Packaging Applications Commodity of PLA......Page 239
8.9.3 Textile Applications of PLA......Page 242
8.9.5 Building Applications......Page 243
8.9.6 Other Applications of PLA......Page 244
References......Page 245
9.1 Introduction......Page 253
9.2 Biofibers: Opportunities and Limitations......Page 254
9.2.1 Chemical Composition of Biofibers......Page 256
9.2.2 Surface Modification and Characterization of Biofibers......Page 260
9.2.3 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Biofibers......Page 262
9.3 Biobased Composites: An Overview......Page 263
9.3.1 Biobased Composites of Sisal Fiber Reinforced Polypropylene......Page 265
9.3.2 Innovations in Biobased Hybrid Composites......Page 274
9.4 Conclusion and Future Prospects......Page 290
References......Page 291
Part 3: Miscellaneous Biopolymers......Page 295
10.1 Introduction......Page 297
10.2 Cassia Seed Gums Based Flocculants......Page 299
10.2.1 Cassia angustfolia......Page 300
10.2.2 Cassia javahikai......Page 301
10.2.4 Mechanism of Dye Removal by Flocculants......Page 304
10.3 Cassia Seed Gums Based Metal Sorbents......Page 305
10.3.1 Cassia grandis......Page 306
10.3.2 Cassia marginata......Page 308
10.3.3 Cassia javanica......Page 311
10.4 Other Grafted Cassia Seed Gums......Page 313
10.5 Conclusion......Page 314
References......Page 315
11.1 Introduction......Page 319
11.2.1 Polysaccharides......Page 323
11.2.3 Protein-polysaccharide and Lipopolysaccharides......Page 327
11.2.4 Polyesters......Page 328
11.3.1 Conventional Methods (extraction/isolation)......Page 330
11.3.2 Biosynthesis Methods......Page 333
11.4 Tailor-made Methods......Page 335
11.5.1 Biomedical Applications......Page 337
11.5.3 Food Applications......Page 339
References......Page 340
12.1 Introduction......Page 345
12.1.1 Natural Gums, Sources and Collection......Page 347
12.2 Chemistry of Gum Arabica......Page 348
12.3 Electroactivity of Gum......Page 349
12.3.1 Ionic Conduction in Electroactive Material......Page 350
12.3.3 Ion Transference Number......Page 351
12.3.5 Carrier Mobility in Gum Arabica......Page 352
12.4.1 Microscopic Observation......Page 353
12.4.2 Microscopic Observations......Page 354
12.4.3 Thermodynamic Analysis......Page 356
12.4.4 Electrical Polarization and A.C. Conductivity......Page 358
12.5 Electronic or Vibrational Properties......Page 366
12.6 Enhancement of Electroactivity......Page 370
12.7.1 Gum Arabica and Its Scope of Application......Page 372
12.7.2 Biopolymer Gel......Page 373
12.7.3 Nanocomposites......Page 379
12.7.4 Metallic Sulphide Nanocomplex of Gum Arabica......Page 380
12.7.5 Development of Carbon Nanoparticle......Page 384
12.7.6 Photosensitive Complex......Page 387
12.8 Development of Biopolymeric Solar Cells......Page 392
12.9 Biomedical-like Application......Page 398
References......Page 402
13. Gluten: A Natural Biopolymer......Page 405
13.1 Introduction......Page 406
13.2 Gliadins......Page 411
13.2.1 Genetics and Polymorphism......Page 412
13.3 Glutenins......Page 415
13.3.1 Gluten Polymer Structure......Page 416
13.3.2 Polymeric Proteins......Page 417
13.3.3 Structure......Page 419
13.3.4 Relationship to Wheat Quality......Page 420
13.4 LMW-GS......Page 421
13.4.2 Molecular Characterization of LMW-GS Genes......Page 423
13.6 Albumins and Globulins......Page 425
13.7 Wheat Gluten and Dietary Intolerance......Page 426
References......Page 427
14.1 Introduction......Page 431
14.3 History......Page 432
14.4 Plantation Rubber......Page 434
14.5.1 The Para Rubber Tree......Page 435
14.5.4 Disease Control......Page 436
14.5.5 Tapping and Collection of Crop......Page 438
14.6 Biosynthesis of Rubber......Page 440
14.8 Primary Processing......Page 441
14.8.1 Preserved and Concentrated Latex......Page 442
14.8.2 Ribbed Smoked Sheet......Page 443
14.8.4 Field Coagulum Crepe......Page 446
14.8.5 Technically Specified Rubber......Page 447
14.10 Properties of NR......Page 449
14.11.3 Properties and Applications of TPNR......Page 451
14.12.3 Chlorinated Natural Rubber......Page 452
14.12.5 Graft Copolymers Based on Natural Rubber......Page 453
14.12.6 Epoxidized Natural Rubber......Page 454
14.12.7 Ionic Thermoplastic Elastomers Based on Natural Rubber......Page 455
14.13 Introduction to the Manufacture of Rubber Products......Page 456
14.13.1 Processing Methods......Page 457
14.14.1 Dry Rubber Products......Page 459
14.15 Natural Rubber, a Green Commodity......Page 460
References......Page 461
15.1 Introduction......Page 465
15.2.1 Introduction......Page 466
15.2.2 Investigations of Electronic Structure and Conduction Properties of Periodic and Aperiodic Polypeptides......Page 467
15.2.3 Factors Affecting the Conduction Properties of Proteins......Page 472
15.3.2 Mechanisms of Electron Transfer in DNA......Page 475
15.3.4 Investigation of the Electronic Structure of DNA Base Stacks......Page 476
15.4 Conclusions......Page 481
References......Page 482
Part 4: Biopolymers for Specific Applications......Page 487
16.1 Introduction......Page 489
16.2 Biopolymers......Page 490
16.3.1 Plants......Page 491
16.3.2 Microbes......Page 492
16.3.5 Fossils......Page 494
16.4 Application of biopolymers in agriculture......Page 495
16.5 Seed coating for value addition......Page 497
16.6 Plant Derived Biopolymers in Plant Growth Promotion......Page 498
16.7 Plant Derived Biopolymers in Plant Disease Management......Page 502
16.8 Integrated Use of Plant Gum Biopolymers......Page 504
16.9 Transgenically Produced Biopolymers......Page 505
16.10 Conclusions and Future Prospects......Page 506
References......Page 507
17.1 Introduction......Page 511
17.2.1 Molecular Level......Page 512
17.2.2 Supermolecular Structure......Page 513
17.2.3 Ultrastructure......Page 514
17.3 Application of Natural Lignocellulosic Materials as Adsorbents for Organic Pollutants......Page 516
17.4.1 Adsorption of Model Organic Compounds on Surfactant Treated Cellulose Fibres......Page 519
17.4.2 Different Strategies of Surface Chemical Modification of Cellulose Fibres......Page 525
17.5 Adsorption Properties of Modified Cellulose Fibres......Page 537
17.5.1 Adsorption of Herbicides......Page 540
17.6 Adsorption Isotherm Modelisation......Page 542
17.8 Adsorption Kinetic Modelling......Page 544
17.10 Column Regeneration......Page 547
17.11 Investigation of Adsorption Mechanisms by Laser Induced Luminescence......Page 548
17.12 Conclusion......Page 549
References......Page 550
18.1 Introduction......Page 553
18.2 Purpose of the Use of Polymers in Pharmacy and Medicine......Page 554
18.2.1 Active Substances......Page 555
18.2.3 Filling, Binding, Stabilizing and Coating Materials......Page 556
18.2.4 Polymers Controlling Drug Release......Page 557
18.3 Administration of Active Substances through the Mucosa of Body Cavities with the Help of Polymers and Biopolymers......Page 575
18.3.1 Mucoadhesion......Page 576
18.3.2 Mucoadhesive Preparations in the Gastrointestinal Tract......Page 577
18.3.3 Drug Administration through the Nasal Mucosa......Page 578
18.3.4 Mucoadhesive Preparations on the Mucosa of the Eye......Page 579
18.3.5 Mucoadhesive Preparations in the Rectum and in the Vagina......Page 580
18.4 Conclusion......Page 581
References......Page 582
19.1 Introduction......Page 587
19.2 The Most Studied Biopolymers in Drug Delivery......Page 588
19.2.1 Cellulose Derivatives......Page 589
19.2.2 Biopolymers from Marine Source......Page 591
19.2.3 Others Polysaccharides......Page 593
19.2.4 Polyhydroxyalcanoates......Page 597
19.2.5 Biopolymers from Proteins......Page 598
References......Page 599
20.1 Introduction......Page 603
20.2 Cationic Polymers......Page 605
20.3.1 Chitosan......Page 606
20.3.2 Gelatin......Page 620
20.3.3 Alginate......Page 621
20.3.4 Arginine......Page 622
20.3.5 Collagen......Page 624
References......Page 627
Index......Page 633