Biomass-Derived Carbon Materials: Production and Applications

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Biomass-Derived Carbon Materials: Production and Applications
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Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
1. Introduction to Biomass-Derived Carbon Materials
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Biomass Resources and Composition
		1.2.1 Plant-Based Biomass
		1.2.2 Fruit-Based Biomass
		1.2.3 Microorganism-Based Biomass
		1.2.4 Animal-Based Biomass
	1.3 Condition for Precursor Selection of Biomass-Derived Carbon
	1.4 Production Methods of Biomass-Derived Carbon
		1.4.1 Carbonization
			1.4.1.1 Hydrothermal Carbonization
			1.4.1.2 Pyrolysis
	1.5 Biomass-Derived Carbons (B-d-CMs) Activation Methods
		1.5.1 Physical Activation
		1.5.2 Chemical Activation
		1.5.3 Combination of Physical and Chemical Activation
		1.5.4 Modification and Structural Control of B-d-CMs
			1.5.4.1 Surface Modification and Heteroatom Doping of B-d-CMs
			1.5.4.2 B-d-CMs Surface Loading of Metal Oxides or Hydroxides
			1.5.4.3 Surface Incorporation with Different Nanostructures
	1.6 Production Process Description
	1.7 Cost Analysis
	1.8 Summary
	References
2. Introduction to Biowaste-Derived Materials
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Synthesis
		2.2.1 Activation Mechanism of BW-AC by Physical Activation
		2.2.2 Activation Mechanism of BW-ACs by Chemical Activation
			2.2.2.1 Influence of Alkaline Activating Agents
			2.2.2.2 Influence of Acidic Activating Agents
			2.2.2.3 Influence of Neutral Activating Agents
			2.2.2.4 Influence of Self-Activating Agents
	2.3 Characterization
		2.3.1 Electron Microscopes
		2.3.2 HR-TEM Analysis
		2.3.3 FTIR Spectroscopy
		2.3.4 Raman Spectroscopy
		2.3.5 XPS Analysis
		2.3.6 XRD Patterns
		2.3.7 BET Analysis
	2.4 Properties
		2.4.1 Surface Defects in BW-AC
		2.4.2 Characterizations of Carbon Defects
		2.4.3 Intrinsic Carbon Defects Activity
		2.4.4 Heteroatom Doping Defects (or) Extrinsic Carbon Defects Activity
		2.4.5 Electronic Band Structure Properties
	2.5 Summary
	References
3. Biomass-derived Carbon-based Materials for Microbicidal Applications
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Biomass Materials
		3.2.1 Carbon and Its Derivatives
	3.3 Microbicidal
		3.3.1 Mechanism of Action
		3.3.2 Microbicidal Resistance
		3.3.3 Factors Affecting Microbicidal Resistance
	3.4 Microbicidal Performance of Biomass-Derived Carbonaceous Materials
		3.4.1 Role of Material Physicochemical Properties
			3.4.1.1 Structural Destruction
			3.4.1.2 Oxidative Stress
			3.4.1.3 Wrapping Effect
			3.4.1.4 Photothermal Effect
			3.4.1.5 Extraction of Lipid
			3.4.1.6 Metabolic Inhibitory Effect
	3.5 Bioengineering Prospective Toward Carbonaceous Materials
		3.5.1 Wound Dressing
		3.5.2 Surface Modifications (Coating) on Medical Devices
		3.5.3 Nanoantibiotic Formulations
	3.6 Biosafety
	3.7 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	Acknowledgment
	References
4. Carbon-Based Nanomaterials Prepared from Biomass for Catalysis
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Preparation of Biomass-Derived Carbon-Based Nanomaterials
	4.3 Graphene
		4.3.1 Preparation of Graphene
		4.3.2 Graphene from Different Sources
	4.4 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)
		4.4.1 Synthesis of CNTs
		4.4.2 Synthesis of CNTs Using Biomass Materials
	4.5 Carbon Quantum Dots (CQDs)
		4.5.1 CQDs from Biomass
	4.6 Catalytic Applications of Carbon-Based Nanomaterials
		4.6.1 Potential Advantages in Using Carbon-Based Nanomaterials for Advanced Catalysts
		4.6.2 Photocatalysts
		4.6.3 Electro Catalysts
	4.7 Conclusions, Future Outlook, and Challenges
	Acknowledgments
	References
5. Biomass-Derived Carbon Quantum Dots for Fluorescence Sensors
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Characterization of CDs
	5.3 Optical Properties
		5.3.1 Absorbance
		5.3.2 Fluorescence
	5.4 Methods for the Synthesis of CDs
		5.4.1 Hydrothermal Carbonization Method
		5.4.2 Microwave Method
		5.4.3 Chemical Oxidation Method
		5.4.4 Pyrolysis
	5.5 Application of CDs
		5.5.1 Metal Ion Sensing
			5.5.1.1 Mercury (Hg2+) Sensor
			5.5.1.2 Iron (Fe3+) Sensor
			5.5.1.3 Lead (Pb2+) Sensor
			5.5.1.4 Copper (Cu2+) Sensor
			5.5.1.5 Miscellaneous Metal Ions
		5.5.2 Anion Sensors
		5.5.3 Miscellaneous Molecules
	5.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	References
6. Biomass-Derived Mesoporous Carbon Nanomaterials for Drug Delivery and Imaging Applications
	Balaji Maddiboyina1, Ramya Krishna Nakkala1, and Gandhi Sivaraman2
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Drug Delivery Systems Based on MCNs
		6.2.1 Immediate-release DDS
		6.2.2 Sustained-release DDS
		6.2.3 Controlled/Targeted DDS
	6.3 Photothermal Therapy
		6.3.1 Synergistic Therapy
		6.3.2 Cell Labeling
		6.3.3 Removal of Toxic Substances
		6.3.4 Transmembrane Delivery
		6.3.5 Photoacoustic Imaging
		6.3.6 Therapeutic Biomolecule Delivery
		6.3.7 Biosensing
		6.3.8 Magnetic Resonance (MR) Imaging
	6.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	References
7. Mesoporous Carbon Synthesized from Biomass as Adsorbent for Toxic Chemical Removal
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Synthesized Methods of Mesoporous Carbons from Biowaste or Biomass
	7.3 Application of Mesoporous Activated Carbons
		7.3.1 Removal of Dyes
			7.3.1.1 GWAC as an Adsorbent for Methylene Blue and Metanil Yellow
			7.3.1.2 Rice Husk (RH)-Derived Mesoporous Activated Carbon (AC) for Methylene Blue (MB) Dye Removal
			7.3.1.3 Activated Carbon from Rattan Waste for Methylene Blue (MB) Removal
			7.3.1.4 Activated Carbon from Cattail Biomass (CAC) for Malachite Green (MG) Removal
			7.3.1.5 Wood SawdustWaste Activated Carbon (WACF-P) for Xylenol Orange (XO) Removal
			7.3.1.6 Mesoporous Activated Carbon from Agricultural Waste for Methylene Blue Removal
			7.3.1.7 Mesoporous Activated Carbon from Edible Fungi Residue (EFR-AC) for Reactive Black 5 Removal
			7.3.1.8 Mesoporous Activated Carbon from PlantWastes for Methylene Blue (MB) Removal
			7.3.1.9 Mesoporous Activated Carbon from Corozo oleifera Shell for Methylene Blue (MB) Removal
			7.3.1.10 Mesoporous Activated Carbon from Coconut Coir Dust for Methylene Blue (MB) and Remazol Yellow (RY) Removal
			7.3.1.11 Mesoporous Activated Carbon from Macadamia Nut Shell (MNS)Waste for Methylene Blue (MB) Removal
			7.3.1.12 Mesoporous Activated Carbon from Neobalanocarpus Heimii Wood Sawdust (WSAC) for Methylene Blue (MB) Removal
		7.3.2 Removal of Metal Ions
			7.3.2.1 Use of Chicken Feather and Eggshell to Synthesize a Novel Magnetized Activated Carbon for Sorption of Heavy Metal Ions
			7.3.2.2 Meso/micropore-Controlled Hierarchical Porous Carbon Derived from Activated Biochar as a High-Performance Adsorbent for Copper Removal
		7.3.3 Removal of Phenolic Compounds
	7.4 Conclusion and Future Outlooks
	References
8. Biomass-derived Carbon as Electrode Materials for Batteries
	8.1 Introduction
		8.1.1 Batteries
		8.1.2 Classification of Batteries
		8.1.3 Characteristics of Batteries
	8.2 Role of Carbon with Mechanism of Rechargeable Batteries (RBs)
		8.2.1 Li-Ion Batteries (LIBs)
		8.2.2 Li-S Batteries (Li-S)
		8.2.3 Na-Ion Batteries (SIBs)
		8.2.4 Zn-Air Batteries (ZABs)
	8.3 Biomass-derived Carbonaceous Materials
	8.4 Electrochemical Performances of RBs using Biomass-derived Carbon Electrodes
		8.4.1 Li-Ion Batteries (LIBs)
			8.4.1.1 Biomass-derived Undoped Carbon Electrodes
			8.4.1.2 Metal Oxides @ Biomass-derived Carbon Nanocomposite Electrodes
			8.4.1.3 Metal Sulfides @ Biomass-derived Carbon Nanocomposite Electrodes
		8.4.2 Na-Ion Batteries (SIBs)
			8.4.2.1 Biomass-derived Undoped Carbon Electrodes
		8.4.3 Li-S batteries
			8.4.3.1 Biomass-derived Carbon Hosts
		8.4.4 Zn-Air Batteries
	8.5 Biomass-derived Heteroatom-Doped Carbon Electrodes for RBs
		8.5.1 Single-Heteroatom-Doped Carbon Electrodes
		8.5.2 Dual-Heteroatom-Doped Carbon Electrodes
	8.6 Summary and Future Prospectives
	References
9. Recent Advances in Bio-derived Nanostructured Carbon-based Materials for Electrochemical Sensor Applications
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	References
10. Porous Carbon Derived From Biomass for Fuel Cells
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Fuel Cells – Theory and Fundamentals
	10.3 Catalyst Support Materials
		10.3.1 As a Catalyst
		10.3.2 Synthesis Methods of Porous Carbon from Biomass
	10.4 Porous Carbon Synthesis from Different Biomass
		10.4.1 Oxygen Reduction Reaction (ORR)
	10.5 Synthesis of Biomass-Derived ORR Catalyst for Fuel Cell
	10.6 Future Outlook
	10.7 Summary
	References
11. Biomass-Derived Carbon-Based Materials for Supercapacitor Applications
	11.1 Introduction
		11.1.1 Capacitor
		11.1.2 Battery
	11.2 Supercapacitor
		11.2.1 Types of Supercapacitors
		11.2.2 Electrical Double-Layer Capacitors (EDLC)
		11.2.3 Pseudocapacitor
		11.2.4 Hybrid Capacitors
	11.3 Activated Carbon Obtained from Biomass for Supercapacitor Application
		11.3.1 Essential for Carbon-based Electrodes
	11.4 Electrochemical Measurements
	11.5 Structural Diversities of Biomass-Derived Carbon for Supercapacitor Applications
		11.5.1 Spherical Structure
		11.5.2 Fibrous Structure
		11.5.3 Tubular Structure
		11.5.4 Sheet Structure
		11.5.5 Porous Structure
		11.5.6 Mesocrystal Structure
	11.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	References
12. Biomass-Derived Carbon for Dye-Sensitized and Perovskite Solar Cells
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 DSSC Working Principle
	12.3 DSSC Components
		12.3.1 Transparent Conducting Substrate (TCO)
		12.3.2 Photoanode
		12.3.3 Dye Sensitizer
		12.3.4 Electrolyte
		12.3.5 Counter Electrode
	12.4 Perovskite Solar Cells
	12.5 Tunability of Bandgap Energy
	12.6 Development of Perovskite Solar Cells from Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells
		12.6.1 Working Principle of PSC
		12.6.2 Perovskite Solar Cells Architecture
		12.6.3 Hole Transport Material
	12.7 Biomass-Derived Carbon Counter Electrode for DSSC
		12.7.1 Performance of DSSC with Counter Electrode via Bio-derived Carbon
		12.7.2 Biomass-Derived Carbon as a Counter Electrode for Perovskite Solar Cells
	12.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	References
13. Recent Advances of Biomass-Derived Porous Carbon Materials in Catalytic Conversion of Organic Compounds
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Synthesis Procedures
		13.2.1 Carbonization
			13.2.1.1 Hydrothermal Carbonization (HTC)
			13.2.1.2 Pyrolysis
		13.2.2 Activation
			13.2.2.1 Physical Activation
			13.2.2.2 Chemical Activation
		13.2.3 Physicochemical Activation
		13.2.4 Microwave-based synthesis
		13.2.5 Functionalization/Doping/Composites of ACs
	13.3 Applications
		13.3.1 Heterogeneous Catalysis
	13.4 Conclusion and Future Challenges
	References
14. Summary on Properties of Bio-Derived Carbon Materials and their Relation with Applications
	14.1 Removal of Toxic Chemicals
	14.2 Electrode Materials for Batteries
	14.3 Electrochemical Sensor Applications
	14.4 Fuel Cell Applications
	References
Index