Biology: The Dynamic Science, 1st Edition

Front Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 2
Copyright......Page 3
Brief Contents\n......Page 18
Contents......Page 20
1 Introduction to Biological Concepts and Research......Page 36
1.1 What Is Life? Characteristics of Living Systems......Page 37
1.2 Biological Evolution......Page 42
1.3 Biodiversity......Page 44
1.4 Biological Research......Page 48
2 Life, Chemistry, and Water......Page 56
2.1 The Organization of Matter: Elements and Atoms......Page 57
2.2 Atomic Structure......Page 58
2.3 Chemical Bonds......Page 63
2.4 Hydrogen Bonds and the Properties of Water......Page 67
2.5 Water Ionization and Acids, Bases, and Buffers......Page 71
3 Biological Molecules: The Carbon Compounds of Life......Page 76
3.1 Carbon Bonding......Page 77
3.2 Functional Groups in Biological Molecules......Page 78
3.3 Carbohydrates......Page 80
3.4 Lipids......Page 85
3.5 Proteins......Page 90
3.6 Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids......Page 99
4 Energy, Enzymes, and Biological Reactions......Page 106
4.1 Energy, Life, and the Laws of Thermodynamics......Page 107
4.2 How Living Organisms Couple Reactions to Make Synthesis Spontaneous......Page 110
4.3 Thermodynamics and Reversible Reactions......Page 112
4.4 Role of Enzymes in Biological Reactions......Page 113
4.5 Conditions and Factors That Affect Enzyme Activity......Page 117
4.6 RNA-Based Biological Catalysts: Ribozymes......Page 121
5 The Cell: An Overview......Page 126
5.1 Basic Features of Cell Structure and Function......Page 127
5.2 Prokaryotic Cells......Page 131
5.3 Eukaryotic Cells......Page 132
5.4 Specialized Structures of Plant Cells......Page 145
5.5 The Animal Cell Surface......Page 148
6 Membranes and Transport......Page 154
6.1 Membrane Structure......Page 155
6.2 Functions of Membranes in Transport: Passive Transport......Page 159
6.3 Passive Water Transport and Osmosis......Page 163
6.4 Active Transport......Page 166
6.5 Exocytosis and Endocytosis......Page 167
7 Cell Communication......Page 174
7.1 Cell Communication: An Overview......Page 175
7.2 Characteristics of Cell Communication Systems with Surface Receptors......Page 178
7.3 Surface Receptors with Built-in Protein Kinase Activity: Receptor Tyrosine Kinases......Page 180
7.4 G-Protein–Coupled Receptors......Page 181
7.5 Pathways Triggered by Internal Receptors: Steroid Hormone Receptors......Page 186
7.6 Integration of Cell Communication Pathways......Page 187
8 Harvesting Chemical Energy: Cellular Respiration......Page 192
8.1 Overview of Cellular Energy Metabolism......Page 193
8.2 Glycolysis......Page 197
8.3 Pyruvate Oxidation and the Citric Acid Cycle......Page 200
8.4 The Electron Transfer System and Oxidative Phosphorylation......Page 203
8.5 Fermentation......Page 207
9 Photosynthesis......Page 212
9.1 Photosynthesis: An Overview......Page 213
9.2 The Light-Dependent Reactions of Photosynthesis......Page 215
9.3 The Light-Independent Reactions of Photosynthesis......Page 224
9.4 Photorespiration and the C4 Cycle......Page 229
10 Cell Division and Mitosis......Page 236
10.1 The Cycle of Cell Growth and Division: An Overview......Page 237
10.2 The Mitotic Cell Cycle......Page 238
10.3 Formation and Action of the Mitotic Spindle......Page 244
10.4 Cell Cycle Regulation......Page 247
10.5 Cell Division in Prokaryotes......Page 251
11 Meiosis: The Cellular Basis of Sexual Reproduction......Page 256
11.1 The Mechanisms of Meiosis......Page 257
11.2 Mechanisms That Generate Genetic Variability......Page 262
11.3 The Time and Place of Meiosis in Organismal Life Cycles......Page 265
12 Mendel, Genes, and Inheritance......Page 270
12.1 The Beginnings of Genetics: Mendel’s Garden Peas......Page 271
12.2 Later Modifications and Additions to Mendel’s Hypotheses......Page 280
13 Genes, Chromosomes, and Human Genetics......Page 290
13.1 Genetic Linkage and Recombination......Page 291
13.2 Sex-Linked Genes......Page 296
13.3 Chromosomal Alterations That Affect Inheritance......Page 301
13.4 Human Genetics and Genetic Counseling......Page 304
13.5 Nontraditional Patterns of Inheritance......Page 307
14 DNA Structure, Replication, and Organization......Page 312
14.1 Establishing DNA as the Hereditary Molecule......Page 313
14.2 DNA Structure......Page 316
14.3 DNA Replication......Page 319
14.4 Mechanisms That Correct Replication Errors......Page 327
14.5 DNA Organization in Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes......Page 330
15 From DNA to Protein......Page 336
15.1 The Connection between DNA, RNA, and Protein......Page 337
15.2 Transcription: DNA-Directed RNA Synthesis......Page 342
15.3 Production of mRNAs in Eukaryotes......Page 344
15.4 Translation: mRNA-Directed Polypeptide Synthesis......Page 348
16 Control of Gene Expression......Page 364
16.1 Regulation of Gene Expression in Prokaryotes......Page 365
16.2 Regulation of Transcription in Eukaryotes......Page 370
16.3 Posttranscriptional, Translational, and Posttranslational Regulation......Page 377
16.4 The Loss of Regulatory Controls in Cancer......Page 380
17 Bacterial and Viral Genetics......Page 386
17.1 Gene Transfer and Genetic Recombination in Bacteria......Page 388
17.2 Viruses and Viral Recombination......Page 395
17.3 Transposable Elements......Page 397
18 DNA Technologies and Genomics......Page 406
18.1 DNA Cloning......Page 407
18.2 Applications of DNA Technologies......Page 414
18.3 Genome Analysis......Page 425
19 Development of Evolutionary Thought......Page 436
19.1 Recognition of Evolutionary Change......Page 437
19.2 Darwin’s Journeys......Page 440
19.3 Evolutionary Biology since Darwin......Page 446
20 Microevolution: Genetic Changes within Populations......Page 454
20.1 Variation in Natural Populations......Page 455
20.2 Population Genetics......Page 458
20.3 The Agents of Microevolution......Page 460
20.4 Maintaining Genetic and Phenotypic Variation......Page 470
20.5 Adaptation and Evolutionary Constraints......Page 472
21 Speciation......Page 478
21.1 What Is a Species?......Page 479
21.2 Maintaining Reproductive Isolation......Page 482
21.3 The Geography of Speciation......Page 484
21.4 Genetic Mechanisms of Speciation......Page 489
22 Paleobiology and Macroevolution......Page 498
22.1 The Fossil Record......Page 499
22.2 Earth History, Biogeography, and Convergent Evolution......Page 504
22.3 Interpreting Evolutionary Lineages......Page 508
22.4 Macroevolutionary Trends in Morphology......Page 512
22.5 Macroevolutionary Trends in Biodiversity......Page 515
22.6 Evolutionary Developmental Biology......Page 518
23 Systematic Biology: Phylogeny and Classification......Page 526
23.1 Systematic Biology: An Overview......Page 527
23.2 The Linnaean System of Taxonomy......Page 528
23.3 Organismal Traits as Systematic Characters......Page 529
23.4 Evaluating Systematic Characters......Page 530
23.5 Phylogenetic Inference and Classification......Page 532
23.6 Molecular Phylogenetics......Page 536
24 The Origin of Life......Page 546
24.1 The Formation of Molecules Necessary for Life......Page 547
24.2 The Origin of Cells......Page 550
24.3 The Origins of Eukaryotic Cells......Page 554
25 Prokaryotes and Viruses......Page 560
25.1 Prokaryotic Structure and Function......Page 561
25.2 The Domain Bacteria......Page 569
25.3 The Domain Archaea......Page 572
25.4 Viruses, Viroids, and Prions......Page 575
26 Protists......Page 584
26.1 What Is a Protist?......Page 585
26.2 The Protist Groups......Page 588
27 Plants......Page 610
27.1 The Transition to Life on Land......Page 611
27.2 Bryophytes: Nonvascular Land Plants......Page 616
27.3 Seedless Vascular Plants......Page 620
27.4 Gymnosperms: The First Seed Plants......Page 625
27.5 Angiosperms: Flowering Plants......Page 630
28 Fungi......Page 640
28.1 General Characteristics of Fungi......Page 641
28.2 Major Groups of Fungi......Page 645
28.3 Fungal Associations......Page 655
29 Animal Phylogeny, Acoelomates, and Protostomes......Page 662
29.1 What Is an Animal?......Page 663
29.2 Key Innovations in Animal Evolution......Page 664
29.3 An Overview of Animal Phylogeny and Classification......Page 668
29.4 Animals without Tissues: Parazoa......Page 670
29.5 Eumetazoans with Radial Symmetry......Page 671
29.6 Lophotrochozoan Protostomes......Page 676
29.7 Ecdysozoan Protostomes......Page 688
30 Deuterostomes: Vertebrates and Their Closest Relatives......Page 702
30.1 Invertebrate Deuterostomes......Page 703
30.2 Overview of the Phylum Chordata......Page 706
30.3 The Origin and Diversification of Vertebrates......Page 709
30.4 Agnathans: Hagfishes and Lampreys, Conodonts and Ostracoderms......Page 712
30.5 Jawed Fishes......Page 713
30.6 Early Tetrapods and Modern Amphibians......Page 718
30.7 The Origin and Mesozoic Radiations of Amniotes......Page 721
30.8 Testudines: Turtles......Page 723
30.9 Living Nonfeathered Diapsids: Sphenodontids, Squamates, and Crocodilians......Page 724
30.10 Aves: Birds......Page 727
30.11 Mammalia: Monotremes, Marsupials, and Placentals......Page 730
30.12 Nonhuman Primates......Page 732
30.13 The Evolution of Humans......Page 737
31 The Plant Body......Page 746
31.1 Plant Structure and Growth: An Overview......Page 747
31.2 The Three Plant Tissue Systems......Page 750
31.3 Primary Shoot Systems......Page 756
31.4 Root Systems......Page 762
31.5 Secondary Growth......Page 765
32 Transport in Plants......Page 772
32.1 Principles of Water and Solute Movement in Plants......Page 773
32.2 Transport in Roots......Page 777
32.3 Transport of Water and Minerals in the Xylem......Page 780
32.4 Transport of Organic Substances in the Phloem......Page 785
33 Plant Nutrition......Page 792
33.1 Plant Nutritional Requirements......Page 793
33.2 Soil......Page 797
33.3 Obtaining and Absorbing Nutrients......Page 800
34 Reproduction and Development in Flowering Plants......Page 810
34.1 Overview of Flowering Plant Reproduction......Page 811
34.2 The Formation of Flowers and Gametes......Page 813
34.3 Pollination, Fertilization, and Germination......Page 816
34.4 Asexual Reproduction of Flowering Plants......Page 822
34.5 Early Development of Plant Form and Function......Page 824
35 Control of Plant Growth and Development......Page 836
35.1 Plant Hormones......Page 837
35.2 Plant Chemical Defenses......Page 847
35.3 Plant Responses to the Environment: Movements......Page 852
35.4 Plant Responses to the Environment: Biological Clocks......Page 856
35.5 Signal Responses at the Cellular Level......Page 861
36 Introduction to Animal Organization and Physiology......Page 866
36.1 Organization of the Animal Body......Page 867
36.2 Animal Tissues......Page 868
36.3 Coordination of Tissues in Organs and Organ Systems......Page 875
36.4 Homeostasis......Page 876
37 Information Flow and the Neuron......Page 882
37.1 Neurons and Their Organization in Nervous Systems......Page 883
37.2 Signal Conduction by Neurons......Page 886
37.3 Conduction across Chemical Synapses......Page 893
37.4 Integration of Incoming Signals by Neurons......Page 897
38 Nervous Systems......Page 902
38.1 Invertebrate and Vertebrate Nervous Systems Compared......Page 903
38.2 The Peripheral Nervous System......Page 906
38.3 The Central Nervous System (CNS) and Its Functions......Page 907
38.4 Memory, Learning, and Consciousness......Page 914
39 Sensory Systems......Page 920
39.1 Overview of Sensory Receptors and Pathways......Page 921
39.2 Mechanoreceptors and the Tactile and Spatial Senses......Page 923
39.3 Mechanoreceptors and Hearing......Page 926
39.4 Photoreceptors and Vision......Page 929
39.5 Chemoreceptors......Page 934
39.6 Thermoreceptors and Nociceptors......Page 938
39.7 Magnetoreceptors and Electroreceptors......Page 939
40 The Endocrine System......Page 944
40.1 Hormones and Their Secretion......Page 945
40.2 Mechanisms of Hormone Action......Page 947
40.3 The Hypothalamus and Pituitary......Page 954
40.4 Other Major Endocrine Glands of Vertebrates......Page 957
40.5 Endocrine Systems in Invertebrates......Page 964
41 Muscles, Bones, and Body Movements......Page 968
41.1 Vertebrate Skeletal Muscle: Structure and Function......Page 969
41.2 Skeletal Systems......Page 976
41.3 Vertebrate Movement: The Interactions between Muscles and Bones......Page 978
42 The Circulatory System......Page 984
42.1 Animal Circulatory Systems: An Introduction......Page 985
42.2 Blood and Its Components......Page 988
42.3 The Heart......Page 991
42.4 Blood Vessels of the Circulatory System......Page 996
42.5 Maintaining Blood Flow and Pressure......Page 1000
42.6 The Lymphatic System......Page 1002
43 Defenses against Disease......Page 1006
43.1 Three Lines of Defense against Invasion......Page 1007
43.2 Nonspecific Defenses: Innate Immunity......Page 1008
43.3 Specific Defenses: Adaptive Immunity......Page 1011
43.4 Malfunctions and Failures of the Immune System......Page 1024
43.5 Defenses in Other Animals......Page 1027
44 Gas Exchange: The Respiratory System......Page 1032
44.1 The Function of Gas Exchange......Page 1033
44.2 Adaptations for Respiration......Page 1036
44.3 The Mammalian Respiratory System......Page 1039
44.4 Mechanisms of Gas Exchange and Transport......Page 1042
44.5 Respiration at High Altitudes and in Ocean Depths......Page 1045
45 Animal Nutrition......Page 1050
45.1 Feeding and Nutrition......Page 1051
45.2 Digestive Processes......Page 1053
45.3 Digestion in Humans and Other Mammals......Page 1055
45.4 Regulation of the Digestive Process......Page 1067
45.5 Digestive Specializations in Vertebrates......Page 1068
46 Regulating the Internal Environment......Page 1074
46.1 Introduction to Osmoregulation and Excretion......Page 1075
46.2 Osmoregulation and Excretion in Invertebrates......Page 1078
46.3 Osmoregulation and Excretion in Mammals......Page 1080
46.4 Regulation of Mammalian Kidney Function......Page 1087
46.5 Kidney Function in Nonmammalian Vertebrates......Page 1089
46.6 Introduction to Thermoregulation......Page 1091
46.7 Ectothermy......Page 1093
46.8 Endothermy......Page 1095
47 Animal Reproduction......Page 1104
47.1 Animal Reproductive Modes: Asexual and Sexual Reproduction......Page 1105
47.2 Cellular Mechanisms of Sexual Reproduction......Page 1106
47.3 Sexual Reproduction in Humans......Page 1113
47.4 Methods for Preventing Pregnancy: Contraception......Page 1122
48 Animal Development......Page 1128
48.1 Mechanisms of Embryonic Development......Page 1129
48.2 Major Patterns of Cleavage and Gastrulation......Page 1132
48.3 From Gastrulation to Adult Body Structures: Organogenesis......Page 1136
48.4 Embryonic Development of Humans and Other Mammals......Page 1139
48.5 The Cellular Basis of Development......Page 1144
48.6 The Genetic and Molecular Control of Development......Page 1150
49 Population Ecology......Page 1160
49.1 The Science of Ecology......Page 1161
49.2 Population Characteristics......Page 1162
49.3 Demography......Page 1164
49.4 The Evolution of Life Histories......Page 1167
49.5 Models of Population Growth......Page 1168
49.6 Population Regulation......Page 1174
49.7 Human Population Growth......Page 1180
50 Population Interactions and Community Ecology......Page 1186
50.1 Population Interactions......Page 1187
50.2 The Nature of Ecological Communities......Page 1195
50.3 Community Characteristics......Page 1198
50.4 Effects of Population Interactions on Community Characteristics......Page 1201
50.5 Effects of Disturbance on Community Characteristics......Page 1202
50.6 Ecological Succession: Responses to Disturbance......Page 1205
50.7 Variations in Species Richness among Communities......Page 1209
51 Ecosystems......Page 1216
51.1 Energy Flow and Ecosystem Energetics......Page 1217
51.2 Nutrient Cycling in Ecosystems......Page 1226
51.3 Ecosystem Modeling......Page 1234
52 The Biosphere......Page 1238
52.1 Environmental Diversity of the Biosphere......Page 1240
52.2 Organismal Responses to Environmental Variation......Page 1244
52.3 Terrestrial Biomes......Page 1246
52.4 Freshwater Biomes......Page 1254
52.5 Marine Biomes......Page 1256
53 Biodiversity and Conservation Biology......Page 1264
53.1 The Benefits of Biodiversity......Page 1265
53.2 The Biodiversity Crisis......Page 1267
53.3 Biodiversity Hotspots......Page 1274
53.4 Conservation Biology: Principles and Theory......Page 1276
53.5 Conservation Biology: Practical Strategies and Economic Tools......Page 1282
54 The Physiology and Genetics of Animal Behavior......Page 1288
54.1 Genetic and Environmental Contributions to Behavior......Page 1289
54.2 Instinctive Behaviors......Page 1290
54.3 Learned Behaviors......Page 1292
54.4 The Neurophysiological Control of Behavior......Page 1294
54.5 Hormones and Behavior......Page 1295
54.6 Nervous System Anatomy and Behavior......Page 1298
55 The Ecology and Evolution of Animal Behavior......Page 1304
55.1 Migration and Wayfinding......Page 1305
55.2 Habitat Selection and Territoriality......Page 1309
55.3 The Evolution of Communication......Page 1311
55.4 The Evolution of Reproductive Behavior and Mating Systems......Page 1314
55.5 The Evolution of Social Behavior......Page 1316
55.6 An Evolutionary View of Human Social Behavior......Page 1320
Appendix A: Answers......Page 1326
Appendix B: Classification System......Page 1359
Appendix C: Annotations to a Journal Article......Page 1363
Glossary......Page 1372
Credits......Page 1414
Index......Page 1418