Biology and ecology of earthworms

Preface
	References
Introduction
Contents
Chapter 1: Earthworm Morphology
	1.1 Segmentation
	1.2 Chaetotaxy
	1.3 Genital and Other Apertures
	1.4 Clitellum and Associated Structures
	1.5 Pigmentation and Coloration
	1.6 Body Wall
	1.7 Coelom (Body Cavity)
	1.8 Alimentary Canal
	1.9 Vascular System
	1.10 Respiratory System
	1.11 Excretory System
	1.12 Nervous System
		1.12.1 Fine Structure of the Nervous System
	1.13 Reproductive System
	References
Chapter 2: Earthworm Physiology
	2.1 Respiration
	2.2 Digestion
	2.3 Excretion
	2.4 Circulation
	2.5 Nervous System
		2.5.1 General Functions of the Nervous System
		2.5.2 Reactions to Light
		2.5.3 Chemoreception
		2.5.4 Thigmotactic Reactions of Earthworms
		2.5.5 Response of Earthworms to Electrical Stimuli
	2.6 Water Relationships
	2.7 Locomotion and Peristalsis
	2.8 Regeneration
	2.9 Transplantation
	References
Chapter 3: Earthworm Diversity, Dispersal and Geographical Distribution
	3.1 Systematic Affinities and Evolutionary Descent
	3.2 Families, Genera and Species
	3.3 Geographical Distribution, Earthworm Biography
	3.4 Movement of Exotic (Peregrine) Species of Earthworms
	References
Chapter 4: Earthworm Life Histories and Biology
	4.1 Life Cycles
	4.2 Earthworm Reproduction
		4.2.1 Spermatogenesis
		4.2.2 Oogenesis
		4.2.3 Copulation and Fertilization
		4.2.4 Parthenogenesis
		4.2.5 Polyploidy
	4.3 Quiescence, Diapause, and Estivation
	4.4 Earthworm Growth
	4.5 Behavior Patterns
		4.5.1 Feeding Behavior
		4.5.2 Earthworm Learning
		4.5.3 Migrations
		4.5.4 Luminescence
		4.5.5 Diurnal Rhythms of Activity
	References
Chapter 5: Earthworm Ecology: Populations
	5.1 Sampling Earthworm Population
		5.1.1 Handsorting
		5.1.2 Soil Washing
		5.1.3 Electrical Methods
		5.1.4 Chemical Methods
		5.1.5 Heat Extraction
		5.1.6 Vibration Methods
		5.1.7 Counting Earthworm Casts
		5.1.8 Mark and Recapture of Earthworms
		5.1.9 Comparisons of Sampling Methods
		5.1.10 Number and Size of Samples for Population Assessment
	5.2 Size of Earthworm Populations
		5.2.1 Numbers in Earthworm Populations
		5.2.2 Biomass in Earthworm Populations
	5.3 Population Structure: Age Distribution
	5.4 Population Structure: Spatial Distribution
		5.4.1 Horizontal Distributions
		5.4.2 Vertical Distributions
	5.5 Seasonal Populations and Activity
	References
Chapter 6: Earthworm Ecology: Communities
	6.1 Structure of Earthworm Communities
		6.1.1 Major Ecological Groups
		6.1.2 Species Diversity
		6.1.3 Species Associations
	6.2 Dispersal
		6.2.1 Active and Passive Earthworm Dispersal
		6.2.2 Introduction and Spread of Earthworm Populations
	6.3 Predators, Parasites, and Pathogens of Earthworms
		6.3.1 Predators
		6.3.2 Parasites and Pathogens
	6.4 Ecological and Physiological Energetics of Earthworms
		6.4.1 Physiological Energetics
		6.4.2 Ecosystem Energetics
	References
Chapter 7: The Influence of Environmental Factors on Earthworms
	7.1 Moisture
	7.2 Temperature
	7.3 pH
	7.4 Aeration and Carbon Dioxide
	7.5 Soil Type
	7.6 Organic Matter
	7.7 Food Supply
	7.8 Interactions Between Environmental Factors
	References
Chapter 8: The Role of Earthworms in Organic Matter and Nutrient Cycles
	8.1 Fragmentation, Breakdown, and Incorporation of Organic Matter
	8.2 Amounts of Organic Matter Consumed
	8.3 Nutrient Cycling
		8.3.1 Carbon
		8.3.2 Nitrogen
		8.3.3 Nitrogen Fixation
		8.3.4 Effects on the C:N Ratio
		8.3.5 Phosphorus
		8.3.6 Other Macronutrients and Micronutrients
	References
Chapter 9: Interactions Between Earthworms, Microorganisms, and Other Invertebrates
	9.1 Effects of Earthworms on the Numbers, Biomass, and Activity of Microorganisms
		9.1.1 Microorganisms in the Intestines of Earthworms
		9.1.2 Populations of Microorganisms in Earthworm Casts and Burrows
	9.2 Importance of Microorganisms as Food for Earthworms
	9.3 The Stimulation of Microbial Decomposition of Litter by Earthworms
	9.4 The Dispersal of Microorganisms by Earthworms
	9.5 Earthworm-Bacterial Symbioses in Nephridia
	References
Chapter 10: Earthworms, Soil Structure, Fertility, and Productivity
	10.1 Earthworm Burrows and Casts
		10.1.1 Earthworm Burrows
		10.1.2 Earthworm Casts
	10.2 Effects of Earthworms on Soil Structure
		10.2.1 Turnover of Soil by Earthworms
		10.2.2 Breakdown of Soil Particles by Earthworms
		10.2.3 Formation of Aggregates by Earthworms
		10.2.4 Changes in Aeration, Porosity, and Drainage Caused by Earthworms
		10.2.5 Effects of Earthworms on Soil Erosion
	10.3 Earthworms as Bioindicators of Soil Type
	10.4 Effects of Earthworms on Plant Productivity
	References
Chapter 11: Earthworms as Pests and Benefactors
	11.1 Earthworms as Pests
		11.1.1 Earthworms as Pests of Crops
		11.1.2 As Pests of Grassland and Turf
		11.1.3 Relationships with Plant Pathogens
		11.1.4 Transmission of Animal Parasites
		11.1.5 Adverse Effects on Soil
	11.2 Earthworms as Benefactors Other Than in Soil Fertility
		11.2.1 Interactions with Organisms that Promote Plant Growth
		11.2.2 Production of Plant-Growth-Promoting Substances
		11.2.3 Production of Biologically Active Materials by Earthworms
		11.2.4 Other Beneficial Uses
	11.3 Control of Earthworms
	References
Chapter 12: Earthworms in Environmental Management and Ecotoxicology
	12.1 Earthworms in Land Amelioration and Reclamation
		12.1.1 Introduction of Earthworms into Poor Pastures in New Zealand and Australia
		12.1.2 Introduction of Earthworms into Reclaimed Dutch Polder Soils
		12.1.3 Introduction of Earthworms into Poor Mineral Soils
		12.1.4 Colonization and Restoration of Abandoned Mining Sites by Earthworms
		12.1.5 Reclamation of Open-Cast Mining Sites by Earthworms
		12.1.6 Earthworm Populations in Reclaimed Peat Sites
		12.1.7 Methods of Improving Earthworm Populations in Forests
		12.1.8 Earthworm Introductions into Soils in the Tropics
	12.2 Earthworms as Indicators of Environmental Contamination
		12.2.1 The Use of Earthworms as Bioindicators of Soil Contamination
	12.3 Earthworms in Soil Bioremediation and Detoxification
		12.3.1 Bioremediation by Earthworms
		12.3.2 Earthworms as Biomarkers and in Ecological Risk Assessment (Era) of Contaminated Sites
		12.3.3 Earthworms as Biomarkers
	12.4 Earthworms in Ecotoxicological Testing
		12.4.1 Laboratory Earthworm Toxicity Tests
		12.4.2 Bioaccumulation of Chemicals in Earthworms
	12.5 Heavy Metals and Earthworms
		12.5.1 Toxicity of Heavy Metals to Earthworms
		12.5.2 Sublethal and Chronic Effects of Heavy Metals on Earthworms
		12.5.3 Accumulation of Heavy Metals by Earthworms from Contaminated Soils
	12.6 The Effects of Radioisotopes on Earthworms
	12.7 Effects of Acid Deposition on Earthworms
	References
Chapter 13: Effects of Agricultural Practices and Chemicals on Earthworms
	13.1 The Effects of Cultivations
	13.2 The Effects of Cropping
	13.3 The Effects of Fertilizers
	13.4 The Effects of Chemicals
		13.4.1 Methods of Testing Effects of Chemicals
		13.4.2 Earthworm Mortality from Chemicals
		13.4.3 Uptake of Chemicals into Earthworms
		13.4.4 Chronic and Sublethal Toxicity of Chemicals
	References
Chapter 14: The Use of Earthworms in Organic Waste Management and Vermiculture
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Breakdown of Biosolids by Earthworms
	14.3 Processing of Animal, Vegetable, and Urban Industrial Organic Wastes by Earthworms into Vermicomposts
	14.4 Most Suitable Species of Earthworms for Processing Organic Wastes
		14.4.1 Biology and Ecology of Earthworm Species Most Suitable for Vermicomposting
		14.4.2 Food and Environmental Requirements of Different Earthworm Species That Can Process Organic Wastes in Vermiculture
	14.5 The Use of Vermicomposts as Plant Growth Media and as Soil Amendments
		14.5.1 Characteristics of Vermicomposts Produced by Earthworms from Organic Wastes
		14.5.2 Growth of Plants in Vermicomposts and Mixtures of Vermicomposts with Other Plant Growth Media
		14.5.3 Mechanisms by Which Vermicomposts Influence Plant Growth
	14.6 Suppression of Plant Pathogens, Plant-Parasitic Nematodes, and Plant Arthropod Pests by Vermicomposts
		14.6.1 Suppression of Plant Pathogens by Vermicomposts
		14.6.2 Suppression of Arthropod Pests by Vermicomposts
		14.6.3 Suppression of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes
	14.7 Effects of Aqueous Extracts of Vermicomposts (“Teas”) on Plant Growth and in Suppression of Pests and Diseases
		14.7.1 Effects of Vermicompost Aqueous Extracts (“Teas”) on Plant Growth and Yields
			Preparation of Aqueous Extracts
		14.7.2 Suppression of Plant Pathogens by Vermicompost Aqueous Extracts (“Teas”)
		14.7.3 Suppression of Arthropod Plant Pests by Vermicompost Aqueous Extracts (“Teas”)
		14.7.4 Suppression of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes by Vermicompost Aqueous Extracts (“Teas”)
	14.8 Methods of Processing Organic Wastes with Earthworms
		14.8.1 Low-Cost Indoor or Outdoor Floor Beds or Windrow Vermicomposting Systems
		14.8.2 Batch Systems of Vermicomposting
		14.8.3 Domestic Vermicomposting Systems
		14.8.4 Earthworm-Based Toilet Systems
		14.8.5 Wedge Vermicomposting Systems
		14.8.6 Gantry-Fed Vermicomposting Bed Systems
		14.8.7 Continuous Flow Automated Vermicomposting Reactor Systems
		14.8.8 Complete Waste Recycling Vermicomposting Systems
		14.8.9 Economics of Automated Vermicomposting Systems
	14.9 Earthworms as a Source of Protein for Domestic Animal Feed
		14.9.1 Nutrient Value of Earthworms as Animal Feed
		14.9.2 Production of Earthworms to Process Animal, Vegetable, and Industrial Wastes for Animal Feed
		14.9.3 Practical Production of Feed Protein from Earthworms for Animals
		14.9.4 The Value of Earthworm Protein in Feeds for Fish, Poultry, and Pigs
			Fish Feeding Trials on Earthworm Protein
			Chicken Feeding Trials on Earthworm Protein
			Pig Feeding Trials on Earthworm Protein
		14.9.5 Economic Aspects of the Potential of the Production of Earthworm Protein for Animal Feed
	14.10 Quality Criteria for Vermicomposts
		14.10.1 Definitions of Composts and Vermicomposts
		14.10.2 Quality Criteria for Vermicomposts
			Physical Characteristics
			Chemical Characteristics
			Plant Nutrient Content
			Biological Characteristic
	14.11 Human Pathogens in Vermicomposts
		14.11.1 Laboratory Studies on the Elimination of Human Pathogens by Vermicomposting
		14.11.2 Field Studies on Reductions of Human Pathogens During Vermicomposting
		14.11.3 Possible Mechanisms of Pathogen Reduction During Vermicomposting
	14.12 Pharmaceutical Materials Produced from Earthworms
	14.13 Therapeutic Properties of Earthworms
		14.13.1 Antioxidative Activity of Earthworms
		14.13.2 Antiulcer Properties of Earthworms
		14.13.3 Anticarcinogenic Activity of Earthworm Extracts
	14.14 Therapeutic Molecules That Have Been Isolated from Earthworms
	References
Author Index
Subject Index
Index