Biology, Seventh Edition

Front Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Contents......Page 22
1 A VIEW OF LIFE......Page 40
Characteristics of Life......Page 41
Biological Organization......Page 44
Information Transfer......Page 46
Evolution: The Basic Unifying Concept of Biology......Page 47
The Energy of Life......Page 51
The Process and Method of Science......Page 53
2 ATOMS AND MOLECULES: THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE......Page 61
Elements And Atoms......Page 62
Chemical Reactions......Page 65
Chemical Bonds......Page 67
Water......Page 71
Acids, Bases, and Salts......Page 75
3 THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE: ORGANIC COMPOUNDS......Page 80
Carbon Atoms and Molecules......Page 81
Carbohydrates......Page 85
Lipids......Page 90
Proteins......Page 93
Nucleic Acids......Page 100
Identifying Biological Molecules......Page 102
4 ORGANIZATION OF THE CELL......Page 105
Cell Organization and Size......Page 106
Methods for Studying Cells......Page 108
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells......Page 111
Cell Membranes......Page 112
The Cell Nucleus......Page 115
Organelles in the Cytoplasm......Page 119
The Cytoskeleton......Page 126
Cell Coverings......Page 129
5 BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES......Page 134
The Structure of Biological Membranes......Page 135
Passage of Materials Through Cell Membranes......Page 141
Cell Signaling......Page 151
Cell Junctions......Page 153
6 ENERGY AND METABOLISM......Page 159
The Laws of Thermodynamics......Page 160
Energy and Metabolism......Page 161
ATP, the Energy Currency of the Cell......Page 164
Energy Transfer in Redox Reactions......Page 166
Enzymes......Page 167
7 HOW CELLS MAKE ATP: ENERGY-RELEASING PATHWAYS......Page 176
The Four Stages of Aerobic Respiration......Page 177
Anaerobic Respiration and Fermentation......Page 190
8 PHOTOSYNTHESIS: CAPTURING ENERGY......Page 195
Light......Page 196
Chloroplasts......Page 197
Overview of Photosynthesis......Page 200
The Light-Dependent Reactions......Page 202
The Carbon Fixation Reactions......Page 206
9 CHROMOSOMES, MITOSIS, AND MEIOSIS......Page 213
Eukaryotic Chromosomes......Page 214
The Cell Cycle and Mitosis......Page 216
Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis......Page 223
10 THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF HEREDITY......Page 232
Mendel's Principles of Inheritance......Page 233
Mendelian Inheritance and Chromosomes......Page 241
Extensions of Mendelian Genetics......Page 248
11 DNA: THE CARRIER OF GENETIC INFORMATION......Page 257
Evidence of DNA as the Hereditary Material......Page 258
The Structure of DNA......Page 260
DNA Replication......Page 264
12 GENE EXPRESSION......Page 273
Discovery of the Gene-Protein Relationship......Page 274
Information Flow from DNA to Protein: An Overview......Page 275
Transcription......Page 278
Translation......Page 280
Variations in Protein Synthesis in Different Organisms......Page 286
Mutations and Genes......Page 289
13 GENE REGULATION......Page 294
Gene Regulation in Bacteria......Page 295
Gene Regulation in Eukaryotic Cells......Page 302
14 DNA TECHNOLOGIES......Page 311
Recombinant DNA Methods......Page 312
Applications of DNA Technologies......Page 321
Safety Guidelines for DNA Technology......Page 326
15 THE HUMAN GENOME......Page 329
Studying Human Genetics......Page 330
Abnormalities in Chromosome Number and Structure......Page 336
Genetic Diseases Caused by Single-Gene Mutations......Page 340
Genetic Testing and Counseling......Page 344
Human Genetics, Society, and Ethics......Page 347
16 GENES AND DEVELOPMENT......Page 351
Cell Differentiation and Nuclear Equivalence......Page 352
The Genetic Control of Development......Page 357
Cancer and Cell Development......Page 368
17 INTRODUCTION TO DARWINIAN EVOLUTION......Page 372
Pre-Darwinian Ideas about Evolution......Page 373
Darwin and Evolution......Page 374
Evidence for Evolution......Page 378
18 EVOLUTIONARY CHANGE IN POPULATIONS......Page 392
The Hardy-Weinberg Principle......Page 393
Microevolution......Page 395
Genetic Variation in Populations......Page 400
19 SPECIATION AND MACROEVOLUTION......Page 406
Reproductive Isolation......Page 407
Speciation......Page 410
The Rate of Evolutionary Change......Page 415
Macroevolution......Page 416
20 THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY OF LIFE......Page 424
Chemical Evolution on Early Earth......Page 425
The First Cells......Page 427
The History of Life......Page 431
21 THE EVOLUTION OF PRIMATES......Page 443
Primate Adaptations......Page 444
Primate Classification......Page 445
Hominid Evolution......Page 448
Cultural Evolution......Page 454
22 UNDERSTANDING DIVERSITY: SYSTEMATICS......Page 458
Binomial Nomenclature......Page 459
Kingdoms or Domains?......Page 460
Reconstructing Phylogeny......Page 463
Two Major Approaches to Systematics......Page 467
23 VIRUSES AND PROKARYOTES......Page 474
Viruses......Page 475
Viroids and Prions......Page 482
Prokaryotes......Page 483
The Two Prokaryote Domains......Page 488
Effects of Prokaryotes on the Environment......Page 490
24 PROTISTS......Page 497
Evolution of the Eukaryotes......Page 498
Representative Protists......Page 500
25 KINGDOM FUNGI......Page 520
Characteristics of Fungi......Page 521
Fungal Diversity......Page 522
Lichens......Page 530
Ecological Importance of Fungi......Page 532
Economic and Medical Importance of Fungi......Page 533
26 THE PLANT KINGDOM: SEEDLESS PLANTS......Page 538
Adaptations of Plants......Page 539
Bryophytes......Page 541
Seedless Vascular Plants......Page 546
27 THE PLANT KINGDOM: SEED PLANTS......Page 556
Gymnosperms......Page 557
Flowering Plants......Page 563
The Evolution of Seed Plants......Page 568
28 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM: AN INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL DIVERSITY......Page 573
Animal Habitats......Page 574
Reconstructing Phylogeny......Page 575
The Parazoa......Page 580
The Radiata......Page 582
29 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM: THE PROTOSTOMES......Page 589
The Lophotrochozoa......Page 590
The Ecdysozoa......Page 602
30 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM: THE DEUTEROSTOMES......Page 614
Echinoderms......Page 616
Chordate Characters......Page 618
Invertebrate Chordates......Page 619
Introducing the Vertebrates......Page 621
Fishes and Amphibians......Page 623
Amniotes......Page 629
31 PLANT STRUCTURE, GROWTH, AND DIFFERENTIATION......Page 640
Plant Structure and Life Span......Page 641
The Plant Body......Page 642
Plant Meristems......Page 651
32 LEAF STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION......Page 656
Leaf Form and Structure......Page 657
Stomatal Opening and Closing......Page 663
Transpiration and Guttation......Page 665
Leaf Abscission......Page 666
Modified Leaves......Page 667
33 STEMS AND PLANT TRANSPORT......Page 672
Stem Growth and Structure......Page 673
Transport in the Plant Body......Page 680
34 ROOTS AND MINERAL NUTRITION......Page 689
Root Structure and Function......Page 690
The Soil Environment......Page 697
35 REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS......Page 707
The Flowering Plant Life Cycle......Page 708
Pollination......Page 710
Fertilization and Seed/Fruit Development......Page 713
Asexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants......Page 721
A Comparison of Sexual and Asexual Reproduction......Page 723
36 PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT......Page 726
Germination and Early Growth......Page 727
Light Signals and Plant Development......Page 728
Nastic Movements and Tropisms......Page 733
Plant Hormones and Development......Page 735
37 THE ANIMAL BODY: INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION......Page 748
Tissues......Page 749
Organs and Organ Systems......Page 758
Regulating Body Temperature......Page 761
38 PROTECTION, SUPPORT, AND MOVEMENT......Page 767
Epithelial Coverings......Page 768
Skeletal Systems......Page 769
Muscle Contraction......Page 773
39 NEURAL SIGNALING......Page 783
Information Flow Through the Nervous System......Page 784
Neurons and Glial Cells......Page 785
Transmitting Information Along the Neuron......Page 786
Neural Signaling Across Synapses......Page 792
Neural Integration......Page 796
Neural Circuits......Page 797
40 NEURAL REGULATION......Page 801
Invertebrate Nervous Systems......Page 802
Evolution of the Vertebrate Brain......Page 804
The Human Central Nervous System......Page 807
The Peripheral Nervous System......Page 816
Effects of Drugs on the Nervous System......Page 818
41 SENSORY RECEPTION......Page 825
Types of Sensory Receptors......Page 826
How Sensory Receptors Function......Page 827
Mechanoreceptors......Page 828
Chemoreceptors......Page 835
Photoreceptors......Page 837
42 INTERNAL TRANSPORT......Page 846
Types of Circulatory Systems......Page 847
Vertebrate Blood......Page 849
Vertebrate Blood Vessels......Page 852
Evolution of the Vertebrate Cardiovascular System......Page 854
The Human Heart......Page 855
Blood Pressure......Page 860
The Pattern of Circulation......Page 863
The Lymphatic System......Page 865
43 INTERNAL DEFENSE......Page 870
Nonspecific and Specific Immunity: An Overview......Page 871
Nonspecific Immune Responses......Page 872
Specific Immune Responses......Page 875
Cell-Mediated Immunity......Page 878
Antibody-Mediated Immunity......Page 879
Immunological Memory......Page 884
The Immune System and Disease......Page 886
Harmful Immune Responses......Page 890
44 GAS EXCHANGE......Page 896
Adaptations for Gas Exchange in Air or Water......Page 897
Types of Respiratory Surfaces......Page 898
The Mammalian Respiratory System......Page 901
Breathing Polluted Air......Page 909
45 PROCESSING FOOD AND NUTRITION......Page 914
Nutritional Styles and Adaptations......Page 915
The Vertebrate Digestive System......Page 917
Required Nutrients......Page 924
Energy Metabolism......Page 930
46 OSMOREGULATION AND DISPOSAL OF METABOLIC WASTES......Page 935
Metabolic Waste Products......Page 936
Osmoregulation and Metabolic Waste Disposal in Invertebrates......Page 937
Osmoregulation and Metabolic Waste Disposal in Vertebrates......Page 938
The Urinary System......Page 940
47 ENDOCRINE REGULATION......Page 952
Cell Signaling......Page 953
Regulation of Hormone Secretion......Page 956
Mechanisms of Hormone Action......Page 957
Invertebrate Neuroendocrine Systems......Page 960
The Vertebrate Endocrine System......Page 961
48 REPRODUCTION......Page 975
Asexual and Sexual Reproduction......Page 976
Human Reproduction: The Male......Page 978
Human Reproduction: The Female......Page 983
Fertilization and Early Development......Page 990
Birth Control Methods......Page 993
Sexually Transmitted Diseases......Page 998
49 ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT......Page 1001
Fertilization......Page 1002
Cleavage......Page 1004
Gastrulation......Page 1007
Organogenesis......Page 1009
Extraembryonic Membranes......Page 1011
Human Development......Page 1012
50 ANIMAL BEHAVIOR......Page 1020
Interaction of Genes and Environment......Page 1021
Learning from Experience......Page 1023
Biological Rhythms and Migration......Page 1026
Foraging Behavior......Page 1028
Social Behavior......Page 1029
Sexual Selection......Page 1035
Helping Behavior......Page 1038
51 INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGY: POPULATION ECOLOGY......Page 1042
Features of Populations......Page 1043
Changes in Population Size......Page 1045
Factors Influencing Population Size......Page 1047
Life History Traits......Page 1050
Metapopulations......Page 1053
Human Populations......Page 1054
52 COMMUNITY ECOLOGY......Page 1062
Community Structure and Functioning......Page 1063
Community Biodiversity......Page 1074
Community Development......Page 1077
53 ECOSYSTEMS AND THE BIOSPHERE......Page 1082
Energy Flow Through Ecosystems......Page 1083
Cycles of Matter in Ecosystems......Page 1088
Ecosystem Regulation from the Bottom Up and the Top Down......Page 1094
Abiotic Factors in Ecosystems......Page 1095
54 ECOLOGY AND THE GEOGRAPHY OF LIFE......Page 1104
Biomes......Page 1105
Aquatic Ecosystems......Page 1114
Biogeography......Page 1123
55 HUMANS IN THE ENVIRONMENT......Page 1127
The Biodiversity Crisis......Page 1128
Deforestation......Page 1137
Global Warming......Page 1139
Declining Stratospheric Ozone......Page 1143
Connections Among Environmental Problems......Page 1145
Appendix A: Periodic Table of the Elements......Page 1148
Appendix B: Classification of Organisms......Page 1149
Appendix C: Understanding Biological Terms......Page 1153
Appendix D: Abbreviations......Page 1156
Glossary......Page 1158
Index......Page 1206