Biology, 8th Edition

Front Cover......Page 1
Biology, 8th Edition......Page 2
ISBN 13: 9780495107057......Page 3
Contents......Page 10
1 A VIEW OF LIFE......Page 36
Characteristics of Life......Page 37
Information Transfer......Page 41
Evolution: The Basic Unifying Concept of Biology......Page 44
The Energy for Life......Page 49
The Process of Science......Page 50
2 ATOMS AND MOLECULES: THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE......Page 60
Elements and Atoms......Page 61
Chemical Reactions......Page 64
Chemical Bonds......Page 66
Water......Page 71
Acids, Bases, and Salts......Page 74
3 THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE: ORGANIC COMPOUNDS......Page 80
Carbon Atoms and Molecules......Page 81
Carbohydrates......Page 85
Lipids......Page 91
Proteins......Page 94
Nucleic Acids......Page 102
Identifying Biological Molecules......Page 105
4 ORGANIZATION OF THE CELL......Page 108
Cell Organization and Size......Page 109
Methods for Studying Cells......Page 111
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells......Page 115
Cell Membranes......Page 116
The Cell Nucleus......Page 119
Focus On: Acetabularia and the Control of Cell Activities......Page 121
Organelles in the Cytoplasm......Page 123
The Cytoskeleton......Page 132
Cell Coverings......Page 137
5 BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES......Page 141
The Structure of Biological Membranes......Page 142
Passage of Materials through Cell Membranes......Page 149
Passive Transport......Page 150
Active Transport......Page 155
Exocytosis and Endocytosis......Page 158
Cell Junctions......Page 162
6 CELL COMMUNICATION......Page 169
Cell Signaling: An Overview......Page 170
Sending Signals......Page 171
Reception......Page 172
Signal Transduction......Page 175
Responses to Signals......Page 180
Evolution of Cell Communication......Page 182
7 ENERGY AND METABOLISM......Page 187
Biological Work......Page 188
The Laws of Thermodynamics......Page 189
Energy and Metabolism......Page 190
ATP, the Energy Currency of the Cell......Page 192
Energy Transfer in Redox Reactions......Page 194
Enzymes......Page 195
8 HOW CELLS MAKE ATP: ENERGYRELEASING PATHWAYS......Page 206
Redox Reactions......Page 207
The Four Stages of Aerobic Respiration......Page 208
Energy Yield of Nutrients Other Than Glucose......Page 220
Anaerobic Respiration and Fermentation......Page 221
9 PHOTOSYNTHESIS: CAPTURING ENERGY......Page 226
Light......Page 227
Chloroplasts......Page 228
Overview of Photosynthesis......Page 231
The Light-Dependent Reactions......Page 233
The Carbon Fixation Reactions......Page 237
Metabolic Diversity......Page 241
Photosynthesis in Plants and in the Environment......Page 242
10 CHROMOSOMES, MITOSIS, AND MEIOSIS......Page 246
Eukaryotic Chromosomes......Page 247
The Cell Cycle and Mitosis......Page 250
Regulation of the Cell Cycle......Page 256
Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis......Page 258
11 THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF HEREDITY......Page 269
Mendel's Principles of Inheritance......Page 270
Using Probability to Predict Mendelian Inheritance......Page 278
Focus On: Solving Genetics Problems......Page 280
Inheritance and Chromosomes......Page 281
Extensions of Mendelian Genetics......Page 287
12 DNA: THE CARRIER OF GENETIC INFORMATION......Page 295
Evidence of DNA as the Hereditary Material......Page 296
The Structure of DNA......Page 298
DNA Replication......Page 301
13 GENE EXPRESSION......Page 314
Discovery of the Gene–Protein Relationship......Page 315
Information Flow from DNA to Protein: An Overview......Page 317
Transcription......Page 320
Translation......Page 323
Variations in Gene Expression in Different Organisms......Page 327
Mutations......Page 333
14 GENE REGULATION......Page 339
Gene Regulation in Bacteria and Eukaryotes: An Overview......Page 340
Gene Regulation in Bacteria......Page 341
Gene Regulation in Eukaryotic Cells......Page 347
15 DNA TECHNOLOGY AND GENOMICS......Page 357
DNA Cloning......Page 358
DNA Analysis......Page 365
Genomics......Page 368
Applications of DNA Technologies......Page 373
DNA Technology Has Raised Safety Concerns......Page 377
16 THE HUMAN GENOME......Page 381
Studying Human Genetics......Page 382
Abnormalities in Chromosome Number and Structure......Page 386
Genetic Diseases Caused by Single-Gene Mutations......Page 391
Gene Therapy......Page 395
Genetic Testing and Counseling......Page 396
Human Genetics, Society, and Ethics......Page 398
17 DEVELOPMENTAL GENETICS......Page 403
Cell Differentiation and Nuclear Equivalence......Page 404
The Genetic Control of Development......Page 409
Cancer and Cell Development......Page 421
18 INTRODUCTION TO DARWINIAN EVOLUTION......Page 425
Pre-Darwinian Ideas about Evolution......Page 426
Darwin and Evolution......Page 427
Evidence for Evolution......Page 431
19 EVOLUTIONARY CHANGE IN POPULATIONS......Page 447
The Hardy–Weinberg Principle......Page 448
Microevolution......Page 451
Genetic Variation in Populations......Page 456
20 SPECIATION AND MACROEVOLUTION......Page 463
What Is a Species?......Page 464
Reproductive Isolation......Page 465
Speciation......Page 467
The Rate of Evolutionary Change......Page 473
Macroevolution......Page 474
21 THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY OF LIFE......Page 482
Chemical Evolution on Early Earth......Page 483
The First Cells......Page 485
The History of Life......Page 490
Focus On: The Origin of Flight in Birds......Page 497
22 THE EVOLUTION OF PRIMATES......Page 501
Primate Adaptations......Page 502
Primate Classification......Page 503
Hominid Evolution......Page 506
Focus On: The Smallest Humans......Page 511
Cultural Change......Page 513
23 UNDERSTANDING DIVERSITY: SYSTEMATICS......Page 517
Classifying Organisms......Page 518
Determining the Major Branches in the Tree of Life......Page 519
Reconstructing Phylogeny......Page 522
Constructing Phylogenetic Trees......Page 528
24 VIRUSES AND PROKARYOTES......Page 535
Viruses......Page 536
Focus On: Influenza and Other Emerging and Re-emerging Diseases......Page 541
Viroids and Prions......Page 545
Prokaryotes......Page 547
The Two Prokaryote Domains......Page 553
Impact of Prokaryotes......Page 555
25 PROTISTS......Page 565
Evolution of the Eukaryotes......Page 566
Representative Protists......Page 569
26 KINGDOM FUNGI......Page 590
Characteristics of Fungi......Page 591
Fungal Diversity......Page 593
Ecological Importance of Fungi......Page 605
Economic, Biological, and Medical Impact of Fungi......Page 609
27 THE PLANT KINGDOM: SEEDLESS PLANTS......Page 616
Adaptations of Plants......Page 617
Bryophytes......Page 619
Seedless Vascular Plants......Page 624
Focus On: Ancient Plants and Coal Formation......Page 625
28 THE PLANT KINGDOM: SEED PLANTS......Page 635
Gymnosperms......Page 636
Flowering Plants......Page 642
The Evolution of Seed Plants......Page 649
29 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM: AN INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL DIVERSITY......Page 654
Adaptations to Habitats......Page 655
Animal Origins......Page 656
Reconstructing Animal Phylogeny......Page 657
The Parazoa: Sponges......Page 665
The Radiata: Animals with Radial Symmetry and Two Cell Layers......Page 666
30 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM: THE PROTOSTOMES......Page 675
The Lophotrochozoa......Page 676
The Ecdysozoa......Page 689
31 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM: THE DEUTEROSTOMES......Page 702
Echinoderms......Page 703
Chordate Characters......Page 706
Invertebrate Chordates......Page 707
Introducing the Vertebrates......Page 709
Jawless Fishes......Page 712
Evolution of Jaws and Limbs: Jawed Fishes and Amphibians......Page 713
Amniotes......Page 718
32 PLANT STRUCTURE, GROWTH, AND DIFFERENTIATION......Page 733
Plant Structure and Life Span......Page 734
The Plant Body......Page 735
Plant Meristems......Page 745
33 LEAF STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION......Page 750
Leaf Form and Structure......Page 751
Focus On: Air Pollution and Leaves......Page 756
Stomatal Opening and Closing......Page 757
Transpiration and Guttation......Page 759
Leaf Abscission......Page 760
Modified Leaves......Page 761
34 STEMS AND TRANSPORT IN VASCULAR PLANTS......Page 766
Stem Growth and Structure......Page 767
Focus On: Tree-Ring Analysis......Page 773
Transport in the Plant Body......Page 774
35 ROOTS AND MINERAL NUTRITION......Page 783
Root Structure and Function......Page 784
Root Associations with Fungi and Bacteria......Page 791
The Soil Environment......Page 792
36 REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS......Page 802
The Flowering Plant Life Cycle......Page 803
Pollination......Page 806
Fertilization and Seed/Fruit Development......Page 810
Germination and Early Growth......Page 817
Asexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants......Page 818
A Comparison of Sexual and Asexual Reproduction......Page 820
37 PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT......Page 824
Tropisms......Page 825
Plant Hormones and Development......Page 826
Focus On: Cell and Tissue Culture......Page 831
Light Signals and Plant Development......Page 835
38 ANIMAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION: AN INTRODUCTION......Page 842
Tissues......Page 843
Focus On: Unwelcome Tissues: Cancers......Page 851
Organs and Organ Systems......Page 852
Regulating Body Temperature......Page 857
39 PROTECTION, SUPPORT, AND MOVEMENT......Page 862
Epithelial Coverings......Page 863
Skeletal Systems......Page 864
Muscle Contraction......Page 868
40 NEURAL SIGNALING......Page 880
Information Flow through the Nervous System......Page 881
Neurons and Glial Cells......Page 882
Transmitting Information along the Neuron......Page 884
Neural Signaling across Synapses......Page 890
Focus On: Alzheimer's Disease......Page 892
Neural Integration......Page 895
Neural Circuits......Page 896
41 NEURAL REGULATION......Page 900
Invertebrate Nervous Systems......Page 901
Organization of the Vertebrate Nervous System......Page 902
Evolution of the Vertebrate Brain......Page 903
The Human Central Nervous System......Page 906
Focus On: The Neurobiology of Traumatic Experience......Page 914
Information Processing......Page 915
The Peripheral Nervous System......Page 918
Effects of Drugs on the Nervous System......Page 921
Focus On: Alcohol: The Most Abused Drug......Page 922
42 SENSORY SYSTEMS......Page 928
How Sensory Systems Work......Page 929
Types of Sensory Receptors......Page 931
Thermoreceptors......Page 932
Mechanoreceptors......Page 933
Chemoreceptors......Page 941
Photoreceptors......Page 944
43 INTERNAL TRANSPORT......Page 954
Types of Circulatory Systems......Page 955
Vertebrate Blood......Page 957
Vertebrate Blood Vessels......Page 960
Evolution of the Vertebrate Cardiovascular System......Page 962
The Human Heart......Page 963
Blood Pressure......Page 968
Focus On: Cardiovascular Disease......Page 969
The Pattern of Circulation......Page 972
The Lymphatic System......Page 973
44 THE IMMUNE SYSTEM: INTERNAL DEFENSE......Page 979
Nonspecific and Specific Immunity: An Overview......Page 980
Nonspecific Immune Responses......Page 981
Specific Immune Responses......Page 985
Antibody-Mediated Immunity......Page 987
Immunological Memory......Page 993
The Immune System and Disease......Page 995
Harmful Immune Responses......Page 999
45 GAS EXCHANGE......Page 1005
Types of Respiratory Surfaces......Page 1006
The Mammalian Respiratory System......Page 1010
Breathing Polluted Air......Page 1018
Focus On: The Effects of Smoking......Page 1019
46 PROCESSING FOOD AND NUTRITION......Page 1024
Nutritional Styles and Adaptations......Page 1025
The Vertebrate Digestive System......Page 1027
Required Nutrients......Page 1035
Energy Metabolism......Page 1040
47 OSMOREGULATION AND DISPOSAL OF METABOLIC WASTES......Page 1046
Metabolic Waste Products......Page 1047
Osmoregulation and Excretion in Invertebrates......Page 1048
Osmoregulation and Excretion in Vertebrates......Page 1050
The Urinary System......Page 1052
48 ENDOCRINE REGULATION......Page 1063
An Overview of Endocrine Regulation......Page 1064
Types of Endocrine Signaling......Page 1066
Focus On: Anabolic Steroids and Other Abused Hormones......Page 1067
Mechanisms of Hormone Action......Page 1068
Invertebrate Neuroendocrine Systems......Page 1070
The Vertebrate Endocrine System......Page 1071
49 REPRODUCTION......Page 1086
Asexual and Sexual Reproduction......Page 1087
Human Reproduction: The Male......Page 1089
Human Reproduction: The Female......Page 1093
Focus On: Breast Cancer......Page 1098
Sexual Response......Page 1102
Fertilization and Early Development......Page 1103
Focus On: Novel Origins......Page 1104
The Birth Process......Page 1105
Birth Control Methods......Page 1106
Sexually Transmitted Diseases......Page 1110
50 ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT......Page 1115
Fertilization......Page 1116
Cleavage......Page 1118
Gastrulation......Page 1122
Organogenesis......Page 1124
Human Development......Page 1126
51 ANIMAL BEHAVIOR......Page 1136
Interaction of Genes and Environment......Page 1137
Learning from Experience......Page 1139
Biological Rhythms and Migration......Page 1143
Foraging Behavior......Page 1145
Communication and Living in Groups......Page 1146
Sexual Selection......Page 1150
Helping Behavior......Page 1153
Highly Organized Societies......Page 1156
52 INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGY: POPULATION ECOLOGY......Page 1161
Features of Populations......Page 1162
Changes in Population Size......Page 1164
Factors Influencing Population Size......Page 1166
Life History Traits......Page 1169
Metapopulations......Page 1172
Human Populations......Page 1174
53 COMMUNITY ECOLOGY......Page 1181
Community Structure and Functioning......Page 1182
Focus On: Batesian Butterflies Disproved......Page 1190
Community Biodiversity......Page 1193
Community Development......Page 1196
54 ECOSYSTEMS AND THE BIOSPHERE......Page 1201
Energy Flow through Ecosystems......Page 1202
Cycles of Matter in Ecosystems......Page 1207
Ecosystem Regulation from the Bottom Up and the Top Down......Page 1213
Abiotic Factors in Ecosystems......Page 1214
Focus On: Life without the Sun......Page 1215
Studying Ecosystem Processes......Page 1220
55 ECOLOGY AND THE GEOGRAPHY OF LIFE......Page 1224
Biomes......Page 1225
Focus On: The Distribution of Vegetation on Mountains......Page 1230
Aquatic Ecosystems......Page 1234
Ecotones......Page 1242
Biogeography......Page 1243
56 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES......Page 1247
The Biodiversity Crisis......Page 1248
Focus On: Declining Amphibian Populations......Page 1250
Conservation Biology......Page 1254
Deforestation......Page 1259
Global Warming......Page 1261
Declining Stratospheric Ozone......Page 1264
Connections among Environmental Problems......Page 1266
Appendix A: Periodic Table of the Elements......Page 1270
Appendix B: Classifi cation of Organisms......Page 1271
Appendix C: Understanding Biological Terms......Page 1275
Appendix D: Abbreviations......Page 1278
Appendix E: Answers to Test Your Understanding Questions......Page 1280
Glossary......Page 1282
Index......Page 1330