Biological Science, Third Canadian Edition, 3rd edition

Cover......Page 1
Brief Contents......Page 2
Canadian Research and Canadian Issues......Page 3
Title Page......Page 18
Copyright Page......Page 19
Detailed Contents......Page 20
About the Authors......Page 37
Preface to Instructors......Page 40
1. Biology and the Tree of Life......Page 48
All Organisms Are Made of Cells......Page 49
Where Do Cells Come From?......Page 50
What Is Natural Selection?......Page 51
The Central Dogma......Page 52
Using Molecules to Understand the Tree of Life......Page 53
How Should We Name Branches on the Tree of Life?......Page 55
How Has Artificial Selection Affected Bighorn Sheep? An Introduction to Hypothesis Testing......Page 56
How Do Ants Navigate? An Introduction to Experimental Design......Page 57
Chapter Review......Page 60
Big Picture: Doing Biology......Page 63
BioSkills......Page 65
Significant Figures......Page 66
B.2. Reading and Making Graphs......Page 67
Getting Started......Page 68
Types of Graphs......Page 69
Standard Error Bars......Page 70
Interpreting P Values and Statistical Significance......Page 71
The Both-And Rule......Page 72
Using Electrophoresis to Separate Molecules......Page 73
Visualizing Molecules......Page 74
B.6. Separating Cell Components by Centrifugation......Page 76
Electron Microscopy......Page 77
Studying Live Cells and Real-Time Processes......Page 78
B.8. Using Molecular Biology Tools and Techniques......Page 79
Amplifying DNA Using the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)......Page 80
Automated Sanger DNA Sequencing......Page 82
Cell and Tissue Culture Methods......Page 83
Model Organisms......Page 84
Tips for Making Your Own Models......Page 87
Concept Maps......Page 88
Anatomy of a Phylogenetic Tree......Page 89
B.12. Reading Chemical Structures......Page 90
Getting Started......Page 92
B.15. Recognizing and Correcting Misconceptions......Page 94
Six Study Steps to Success......Page 95
2. Water and Carbon: The Chemical Basis of Life......Page 97
Basic Atomic Structure......Page 98
How Does Covalent Bonding Hold Molecules Together?......Page 100
Ionic Bonding, Ions, and the Electron-Sharing Continuum......Page 101
Representing Molecules......Page 102
2.2. Properties of Water and the Early Oceans......Page 103
What Properties Are Correlated with Water’s Structure?......Page 104
The Role of Water in Acid–Base Chemical Reactions......Page 106
How Do Chemical Reactions Happen?......Page 108
What Makes a Chemical Reaction Spontaneous?......Page 109
Early Origin-of-Life Experiments......Page 111
Recent Origin-of-Life Experiments......Page 112
2.5. The Importance of Organic Molecules......Page 114
Functional Groups......Page 115
Chapter Review......Page 117
3. Protein Structure and Function......Page 120
The Nature of Side Chains......Page 121
How Do Amino Acids Link to Form Proteins?......Page 123
Primary Structure......Page 125
Canadian Research 3.1: Designing New Proteins......Page 126
Secondary Structure......Page 127
Quaternary Structure......Page 128
Protein Shape Is Flexible......Page 130
Why Are Enzymes Good Catalysts?......Page 132
Chapter Review......Page 133
4. Nucleic Acids and the RNA World......Page 136
What Are Nucleotides?......Page 137
How Do Nucleotides Polymerize to Form Nucleic Acids?......Page 138
What Is the Nature of DNA’s Secondary Structure?......Page 140
DNA Functions as an Information-Containing Molecule......Page 142
The DNA Double Helix Is a Stable Structure......Page 143
Structurally, RNA Differs from DNA......Page 144
RNA Can Function as a Catalytic Molecule......Page 145
How Biologists Study the RNA World......Page 146
Canadian Research 4.1: Designing New Deoxyribozymes......Page 147
Chapter Review......Page 148
5. An Introduction to Carbohydrates......Page 150
What Distinguishes One Monosaccharide from Another?......Page 151
Can Monosaccharides Form by Chemical Evolution?......Page 152
5.2. The Structure of Disaccharides......Page 153
Polysaccharides and Chemical Evolution......Page 154
The Role of Carbohydrates in Cell Identity......Page 156
Canadian Research 5.1: Human Milk Carbohydrates......Page 157
Canadian Issues 5.1: Natural and Artificial Sweeteners......Page 159
Chapter Review......Page 160
6. Lipids, Membranes, and the First Cells......Page 163
Why Is Bond Structure Important?......Page 164
A Look at Three Types of Lipids Found in Cells......Page 165
How Membrane Lipids Interact with Water......Page 166
Artificial Membranes as an Experimental System......Page 167
How Does Lipid Structure Affect Membrane Permeability?......Page 168
How Does Temperature Affect the Fluidity and Permeability of Membranes?......Page 169
6.3. How Substances Move across Lipid Bilayers: Diffusion and Osmosis......Page 170
Canadian Research 6.1: Artificial Cells and Liposomal Nanomedicines......Page 171
Osmosis......Page 172
Membranes and Chemical Evolution......Page 173
6.4. Proteins Alter Membrane Structure and Function......Page 174
Development of the Fluid-Mosaic Model......Page 175
Channel Proteins Facilitate Diffusion......Page 176
Carrier Proteins Facilitate Diffusion......Page 179
Pumps and Coupled Transporters Perform Active Transport......Page 180
Plasma Membranes Define the Intracellular Environment......Page 181
Canadian Research 6.2: Membrane Proteins......Page 182
Chapter Review......Page 183
Big Picture: Macromolecules......Page 185
7. Inside the Cell......Page 187
Prokaryotic Cell Structures: A Parts List......Page 188
Canadian Research 7.1: Bacteria Cells Have Their Own Cytoskeleton......Page 190
7.2. Eukaryotic Cell Structures and Their Functions......Page 191
Eukaryotic Cell Structures: A Parts List......Page 192
Structure and Function at the Whole-Cell Level......Page 199
The Dynamic Cell......Page 200
How Do Molecules Enter the Nucleus?......Page 201
7.5. Cell Systems II: The Endomembrane System Manufactures, Ships, and Recycles Cargo......Page 202
Studying the Pathway through the Endomembrane System......Page 203
Entering the Endomembrane System: The Signal Hypothesis......Page 204
Moving from the ER to the Golgi Apparatus......Page 205
Recycling Material in the Lysosome......Page 206
7.6. Cell Systems III: The Dynamic Cytoskeleton......Page 208
Actin Filaments......Page 209
Microtubules......Page 210
Flagella and Cilia: Moving the Entire Cell......Page 212
Canadian Research 7.2: Pathogenic Bacteria Alter the Cytoskeleton of Human Cells......Page 213
Chapter Review......Page 214
8. Energy and Enzymes: An Introduction to Metabolism......Page 217
Chemical Reactions Involve Energy Transformations......Page 218
Temperature and Concentration Affect Reaction Rates......Page 219
Redox Reactions Transfer Energy via Electrons......Page 221
ATP Transfers Energy via Phosphate Groups......Page 223
Enzymes Help Reactions Clear Two Hurdles......Page 225
What Limits the Rate of Catalysis?......Page 227
Enzymes Are Optimized for Particular Environments......Page 228
Most Enzymes Are Regulated......Page 229
Metabolic Pathways Are Regulated......Page 231
Metabolic Pathways Evolve......Page 232
Chapter Review......Page 233
9. Cellular Respiration and Fermentation......Page 236
What Happens When Glucose Is Oxidized?......Page 237
Cellular Respiration Plays a Central Role in Metabolism......Page 238
How Is Glycolysis Regulated?......Page 240
9.3. Processing Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA......Page 243
What Happens to the NADH and FADH2?......Page 244
The Electron Transport Chain......Page 247
The Discovery of ATP Synthase......Page 248
The Chemiosmosis Hypothesis......Page 250
Organisms Use a Diversity of Electron Acceptors......Page 251
Canadian Research 9.1: The ATP Synthase and Proton Pump......Page 252
9.6. Fermentation......Page 253
Many Different Fermentation Pathways Exist......Page 254
Canadian Issues 9.1 Making Biofuels with Fermentation and Anaerobic Respiration......Page 255
Chapter Review......Page 256
10. Photosynthesis......Page 259
Photosynthesis: Two Linked Sets of Reactions......Page 260
Photosynthesis Occurs in Chloroplasts......Page 261
Photosynthetic Pigments Absorb Light......Page 262
When Light Is Absorbed, Electrons Enter an Excited State......Page 265
How Does Photosystem II Work?......Page 267
How Does Photosystem I Work?......Page 269
The Z Scheme: Photosystems II and I Work Together......Page 270
The Calvin Cycle Fixes Carbon......Page 272
The Discovery of Rubisco......Page 274
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Pass through Stomata......Page 275
Mechanisms for Increasing CO2 Concentration......Page 276
Canadian Research 10.1: Photosynthesis in Rice......Page 277
What Happens to the Sugar That Is Produced by Photosynthesis?......Page 278
Chapter Review......Page 279
Big Picture: Energy for Life......Page 281
11. Cell–Cell Interactions......Page 283
The Extracellular Matrix in Animals......Page 284
The Cell Wall in Plants......Page 286
11.2. How Do Adjacent Cells Connect and Communicate?......Page 287
Cell–Cell Attachments in Multicellular Eukaryotes......Page 288
Cells Communicate via Cell–Cell Gaps......Page 291
Signal Processing......Page 293
Canadian Research 11.2: The Discovery of Insulin......Page 296
Signal Response......Page 298
11.4. Signalling between Unicellular Organisms......Page 299
Chapter Review......Page 300
12. The Cell Cycle......Page 303
What Is a Chromosome?......Page 304
The Discovery of the Gap Phases......Page 305
The Cell Cycle......Page 306
Events in Mitosis......Page 307
How Do Chromosomes Move during Anaphase?......Page 309
Cytokinesis Results in Two Daughter Cells......Page 312
12.3. Control of the Cell Cycle......Page 313
The Discovery of Cell-Cycle Regulatory Molecules......Page 314
Canadian Research 12.1: Yoshio Masui and the Discovery of MPF......Page 315
Canadian Research 12.2: MPF Activates Condensins Directly......Page 316
Cell-Cycle Checkpoints Can Arrest the Cell Cycle......Page 317
Causes of Cancer......Page 318
Chapter Review......Page 321
13. Meiosis......Page 323
Organisms Have Unique Chromosome Compositions......Page 324
The Concept of Ploidy......Page 325
An Overview of Meiosis......Page 326
The Phases of Meiosis I......Page 329
A Closer Look at Synapsis and Crossing Over......Page 331
Mitosis versus Meiosis......Page 332
13.2. Meiosis Promotes Genetic Variation......Page 334
The Role of Independent Assortment......Page 335
How Does Fertilization Affect Genetic Variation?......Page 336
How Do Mistakes Occur?......Page 337
Why Do Mistakes Occur?......Page 338
The Paradox of Sex......Page 339
The Changing-Environment Hypothesis......Page 340
Chapter Review......Page 341
14. Mendel and the Gene......Page 344
The Garden Pea Served as the First Model Organism in Genetics......Page 345
The Monohybrid Cross......Page 347
Particulate Inheritance......Page 349
The Dihybrid Cross......Page 351
Using a Testcross to Confirm Predictions......Page 353
Testing the Chromosome Theory......Page 354
Linkage: What Happens When Genes Are Located on the Same Chromosome?......Page 357
Quantitative Methods 14.1: Linkage and Genetic Mapping......Page 359
Are Alleles Always Dominant or Recessive?......Page 360
Are All Traits Determined by a Gene?......Page 361
Can Mendel’s Principles Explain Traits That Don’t Fall into Distinct Categories?......Page 362
Identifying Alleles as Recessive or Dominant......Page 364
Identifying Traits as Autosomal or Sex-Linked......Page 365
Canadian Research 14.1: The Genetics of Dog Coat Colour......Page 366
Chapter Review......Page 368
15. DNA and the Gene: Synthesis and Repair......Page 372
The Hershey–Chase Experiment......Page 373
The Secondary Structure of DNA......Page 374
15.2. Testing Early Hypotheses about DNA Synthesis......Page 375
15.3. A Model for DNA Synthesis......Page 376
How Is the Helix Opened and Stabilized?......Page 378
How Is the Leading Strand Synthesized?......Page 379
How Is the Lagging Strand Synthesized?......Page 380
The End Replication Problem......Page 383
Telomerase Regulation......Page 384
Correcting Mistakes in DNA Synthesis......Page 386
Repairing Damaged DNA......Page 387
Canadian Research 15.2: Telomeres and Cancer......Page 388
Chapter Review......Page 389
16. How Genes Work......Page 391
An Experimental Test of the Hypothesis......Page 392
Dissecting the Central Dogma......Page 394
Linking the Central Dogma to Cellular Processes......Page 395
How Long Is a “Word” in the Genetic Code?......Page 396
How Did Researchers Crack the Code?......Page 397
Point Mutations......Page 399
Canadian Research 16.1: The Mutations Responsible for Himalayan Fur Colour in Mink and Mice......Page 401
Chapter Review......Page 402
17. Transcription, RNA Processing, and Translation......Page 405
Initiation: How Does Transcription Begin in Bacteria?......Page 406
Transcription in Eukaryotes......Page 408
Canadian Research 17.1: RNA Base Modifications......Page 410
Adding Caps and Tails to Transcripts......Page 411
Translation in Bacteria and Eukaryotes......Page 412
17.4. The Structure and Function of Transfer RNA......Page 413
What Do tRNAs Look Like?......Page 414
How Are Amino Acids Attached to tRNAs?......Page 415
17.5. The Structure of Ribosomes and Their Function in Translation......Page 416
Initiating Translation......Page 417
Post-Translational Modifications......Page 418
Canadian Research 17.2: RNA Synthesis in Mitochondria......Page 420
Chapter Review......Page 421
18. Control of Gene Expression in Bacteria......Page 424
Mechanisms of Regulation......Page 425
Metabolizing Lactose—A Model System......Page 426
18.2. Identifying Regulated Genes......Page 427
The Operon Model......Page 429
Why Has the lac Operon Model Been So Important?......Page 431
18.4. Positive Control of Transcription......Page 432
18.5. Global Gene Regulation......Page 433
Chapter Review......Page 434
19. Control of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes......Page 437
19.2. Chromatin Remodelling......Page 438
What Is Chromatin’s Basic Structure?......Page 439
How Is Chromatin Altered?......Page 440
Chromatin Modifications Can Be Inherited......Page 441
Canadian Research 19.1: Epigenetic Regulation of Ant Size......Page 442
Enhancers Are Regulatory Sequences Far from the Core Promoter......Page 443
How Do Transcription Factors Recognize Specific DNA Sequences?......Page 444
A Model for Transcription Initiation......Page 445
How Is Translation Controlled?......Page 447
Canadian Research 19.2: Alternative Splicing of RNAs in Human Nerve Cells......Page 448
19.5. How Does Gene Expression Compare in Bacteria and Eukaryotes?......Page 450
The p53 Tumour Suppressor: A Case Study......Page 452
Chapter Review......Page 453
Big Picture: Genetic Information......Page 455
20. The Molecular Revolution: Biotechnology and Beyond......Page 457
Using Restriction Endonucleases and DNA Ligase to Cut and Paste DNA......Page 458
Adding Genes to an Organism......Page 460
Requirements of PCR......Page 461
Canadian Research 20.1: Ancient DNA in Canada......Page 462
20.3. DNA Sequencing......Page 464
20.4. Insights from Genome Analysis......Page 465
The Natural History of Eukaryotic Genomes......Page 466
Genomics after Genome Projects......Page 469
Canadian Issues 20.1: iBOL: The International Barcode of Life Project......Page 470
What Were Some of the First Human Genes Found?......Page 471
What Are the Benefits of Finding a Disease Gene?......Page 472
Can Gene Therapy Provide a Cure?......Page 473
What Is Proteomics?......Page 474
Chapter Review......Page 475
21. Genes, Development, and Evolution......Page 477
Cell Division......Page 478
Cell Differentiation......Page 479
Evidence that Differentiated Plant Cells Are Genetically Equivalent......Page 480
Evidence that Differentiated Animal Cells Are Genetically Equivalent......Page 481
Canadian Research 21.1: The First Cloned Drosophila......Page 482
Morphogens Set Up the Body Axes......Page 483
Regulatory Genes Provide Increasingly Specific Positional Information......Page 485
Regulatory Genes and Signalling Molecules Are Evolutionarily Conserved......Page 486
Canadian Research 21.2: Stem Cells and Stem Cell–Based Therapies......Page 488
21.4. Changes in Developmental Gene Expression Drive Evolutionary Change......Page 490
Chapter Review......Page 492
22. Evolution by Natural Selection......Page 494
Darwin and Wallace and Evolution by Natural Selection......Page 495
Evidence for Change through Time......Page 496
Evidence of Descent from a Common Ancestor......Page 499
Evolution’s “Internal Consistency”—The Importance of Independent Data Sets......Page 502
Darwin’s Inspiration......Page 503
The Biological Definitions of Fitness and Adaptation......Page 504
Case Study 1: How Did Mycobacterium tuberculosis Become Resistant to Antibiotics?......Page 505
Canadian Issues 22.1: Evolution in Action: Do Hunting and Fishing Select for Undesirable Traits?......Page 507
Natural Selection Does Not Change Individuals......Page 510
Evolution Is Not Goal Directed......Page 511
Limitations of Natural Selection......Page 512
Chapter Review......Page 514
23. Evolutionary Processes......Page 516
Deriving the Hardy–Weinberg Principle......Page 517
The Hardy–Weinberg Model Makes Important Assumptions......Page 518
How Does the Hardy–Weinberg Principle Serve as a Null Hypothesis?......Page 519
Mode 1: Directional Selection......Page 521
Mode 2: Stabilizing Selection......Page 522
Mode 3: Disruptive Selection......Page 523
23.3. Genetic Drift......Page 524
Simulation Studies of Genetic Drift......Page 525
Experimental Studies of Genetic Drift......Page 526
What Causes Genetic Drift in Natural Populations?......Page 527
Measuring Gene Flow between Populations......Page 528
Gene Flow Is Random with Respect to Fitness......Page 529
Mutation as an Evolutionary Mechanism......Page 530
Experimental Studies of Mutation......Page 531
Studies of Mutation in Natural Populations......Page 532
Inbreeding......Page 533
Sexual Selection......Page 535
Canadian Research 23.1: Evolution in Action: Kermode Bears and Newfoundland Moose......Page 536
Chapter Review......Page 540
24. Speciation......Page 543
The Morphospecies Concept......Page 544
The Phylogenetic Species Concept......Page 545
Species Definitions in Action: The Case of the Dusky Seaside Sparrow......Page 547
24.2. Isolation and Divergence in Allopatry......Page 548
Allopatric Speciation by Vicariance......Page 549
Sympatric Speciation by Disruptive Selection......Page 550
Sympatric Speciation by Polyploidization......Page 552
Reinforcement......Page 554
Canadian Research 24.1: Dolph Schluter Studies New Species......Page 555
Hybrid Zones......Page 556
New Species through Hybridization......Page 557
Chapter Review......Page 559
25. Phylogenies and the History of Life......Page 561
25.1. Tools for Studying History: Phylogenetic Trees......Page 562
How Do Biologists Estimate Phylogenies?......Page 563
How Can Biologists Distinguish Homology from Homoplasy?......Page 564
Whale Evolution: A Case Study......Page 565
25.2. Tools for Studying History: The Fossil Record......Page 567
How Do Fossils Form?......Page 568
Life’s Time Line......Page 569
Why Do Adaptive Radiations Occur?......Page 572
The Cambrian Explosion......Page 574
Canadian Research 25.1: The Burgess Shale: A Window into the Cambrian Explosion......Page 575
How Do Mass Extinctions Differ from Background Extinctions?......Page 577
The End-Cretaceous Extinction......Page 578
Chapter Review......Page 580
Big Picture: Evolution......Page 583
26. Bacteria and Archaea......Page 585
Some Prokaryotes Thrive in Extreme Environments......Page 586
Medical Importance......Page 587
Role in Bioremediation......Page 589
Using Enrichment Cultures......Page 590
Investigating the Human Microbiome......Page 591
Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies......Page 592
Morphological Diversity......Page 593
Metabolic Diversity......Page 595
Ecological Diversity and Global Impacts......Page 599
26.4. Key Lineages of Bacteria and Archaea......Page 601
Canadian Research 26.1: Is There a Universal Tree of Life?......Page 602
Archaea......Page 603
Chapter Review......Page 605
27. Protists......Page 608
Impacts on Human Health and Welfare......Page 609
Ecological Importance of Protists......Page 611
Canadian Research 27.1: How Will Phytoplankton Respond to Elevated CO2 Levels?......Page 612
Microscopy: Studying Cell Structure......Page 614
Discovering New Lineages via Direct Sequencing......Page 615
What Morphological Innovations Evolved in Protists?......Page 616
How Do Protists Obtain Food?......Page 620
How Do Protists Move?......Page 622
Life Cycles—Haploid Dominated versus Diploid Dominated......Page 623
Rhizaria......Page 626
Chapter Review......Page 628
28. Green Algae and Land Plants......Page 631
Plants Provide Ecosystem Services......Page 632
Plants Provide Humans with Food, Fuel, Fibre, Building Materials, and Medicines......Page 633
Analyzing Morphological Traits......Page 634
Using the Fossil Record......Page 635
Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies......Page 637
The Transition to Land, I: How Did Plants Adapt to Dry Conditions with Intense Sunlight?......Page 638
Mapping Evolutionary Changes on the Phylogenetic Tree......Page 640
The Transition to Land, II: How Do Plants Reproduce in Dry Conditions?......Page 641
Canadian Issues 28.1: Canada’s National Tree Seed Centre......Page 646
The Angiosperm Radiation......Page 649
Canadian Research 28.1: Flowering Plants and Their Pollinators......Page 651
Green Algae......Page 653
Seed Plants: Gymnosperms and Angiosperms......Page 655
Chapter Review......Page 660
29. Fungi......Page 662
Fungi Have Important Economic and Ecological Impacts......Page 663
Mycorrhizal Fungi Provide Nutrients for Land Plants......Page 664
29.2. How Do Biologists Study Fungi?......Page 665
Analyzing Morphological Traits......Page 666
Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies......Page 669
Fungi Often Participate in Symbioses......Page 670
Canadian Research 29.1: Photosynthetic Carbon Is Transferred from Stressed to Healthy Plants through Ectomycorrhizal Networks......Page 674
What Adaptations Make Fungi Such Effective Decomposers?......Page 675
Variation in Reproduction......Page 676
Four Major Types of Life Cycles......Page 678
Microsporidia......Page 681
Zygomycetes......Page 682
Chapter Review......Page 683
30. An Introduction to Animals......Page 686
Canadian Issues 30.1: The Canadian Healthy Oceans Network......Page 687
30.1. What Is an Animal?......Page 688
30.2. What Key Innovations Occurred during the Origin of Animal Phyla?......Page 689
Origin of Multicellularity......Page 691
Origin of Embryonic Tissue Layers and Muscle......Page 692
Origin of Bilateral Symmetry, Cephalization, and the Nervous System......Page 693
Origin of Protostomes and Deuterostomes......Page 696
30.3. What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Animals within Phyla?......Page 697
Sensory Organs......Page 698
Feeding......Page 699
Movement......Page 701
Reproduction......Page 702
Life Cycles......Page 703
Porifera (Sponges)......Page 704
Cnidaria (Jellyfish, Corals, Anemones, Hydroids)......Page 705
Chapter Review......Page 706
31. Protostome Animals......Page 708
31.1. What Is a Protostome?......Page 709
The Water-to-Land Transition......Page 710
31.2. What Is a Lophotrochozoan?......Page 711
What Is a Flatworm?......Page 714
What Is a Mollusk?......Page 715
Canadian Research 31.1: Canada’s Cambrian Mollusks......Page 718
31.3. What Is an Ecdysozoan?......Page 720
What Is an Arthropod?......Page 721
Arthropod Diversity......Page 724
Arthropod Metamorphosis......Page 728
Chapter Review......Page 729
32. Deuterostome Animals......Page 731
The Echinoderm Body Plan......Page 732
Echinoderms Are Important Consumers......Page 733
32.2. What Is a Chordate?......Page 735
The Urochordates......Page 736
32.3. What Is a Vertebrate?......Page 737
Urochordates: Outgroup to Vertebrates......Page 738
Gnathostomes: Origin of the Vertebrate Jaw......Page 740
Tetrapods: Origin of the Limb......Page 743
Amniotes: Origin of the Amniotic Egg......Page 744
Mammals: Origin of Lactation and Fur......Page 745
Reptiles: Origin of Scales and Feathers Made of Keratin......Page 747
Canadian Issues 32.1: Alberta during the Mesozoic Era......Page 748
Take-Home Messages......Page 751
Fossil Humans......Page 752
The Out-of-Africa Hypothesis......Page 756
Have Humans Stopped Evolving?......Page 757
Chapter Review......Page 758
33. Viruses......Page 760
Canadian Research 33.1: Viruses in the Oceans......Page 761
Viruses Cause Disease......Page 762
Current Viral Pandemics in Humans: AIDS......Page 763
33.2. How Do Biologists Study Viruses?......Page 764
Analyzing Morphological Traits......Page 765
Analyzing the Phases of Replicative Growth......Page 766
Analyzing How Viruses Coexist with Host Cells......Page 772
Emerging Viruses, Emerging Diseases......Page 773
33.4. Key Lineages of Viruses......Page 775
Chapter Review......Page 779
Big Picture: Diversity of Life......Page 781
34. Plant Form and Function......Page 783
34.1. Plant Form: Themes with Many Variations......Page 784
The Root System......Page 785
The Shoot System......Page 787
The Leaf......Page 789
Canadian Research 34.1: Does Phenotypic Plasticity of Leaves Offer Protection against Herbivore Attack?......Page 791
The Dermal Tissue System......Page 793
The Ground Tissue System......Page 795
The Vascular Tissue System......Page 796
How Do Apical Meristems Produce the Primary Plant Body?......Page 798
How Is the Primary Root System Organized?......Page 799
34.4. Secondary Growth Widens Shoots and Roots......Page 801
How Does a Cambium Initiate Secondary Growth?......Page 802
What Do Cork Cambia Produce?......Page 803
The Structure of Tree Trunks......Page 804
Chapter Review......Page 805
35. Water and Sugar Transport in Plants......Page 807
What Factors Affect Water Potential?......Page 808
Working with Water Potentials......Page 809
Water Potentials in Soils, Plants, and the Atmosphere......Page 810
Movement of Water and Solutes into the Root......Page 812
Water Movement via Root Pressure......Page 813
The Cohesion-Tension Theory......Page 814
Limiting Water Loss......Page 817
Canadian Research 35.1: Ecological Pressures and the Evolution of Drought Adaptation in Plants......Page 818
Obtaining Carbon Dioxide under Water Stress......Page 819
The Anatomy of Phloem......Page 820
The Pressure-Flow Hypothesis......Page 821
Phloem Loading......Page 822
Phloem Unloading......Page 824
Chapter Review......Page 826
36. Plant Nutrition......Page 829
Which Nutrients Are Essential?......Page 830
What Happens When Key Nutrients Are in Short Supply?......Page 832
The Importance of Soil Conservation......Page 833
What Factors Affect Nutrient Availability?......Page 835
Mechanisms of Nutrient Uptake......Page 836
Canadian Research 36.1: Do Belowground Interactions between Plants and Fungi Influence Aboveground Interactions between Plants and Pollinators?......Page 838
Mechanisms of Ion Exclusion......Page 840
The Role of Symbiotic Bacteria......Page 842
How Do Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria Infect Plant Roots?......Page 843
Epiphytic Plants......Page 844
Carnivorous Plants......Page 845
Chapter Review......Page 846
37. Plant Sensory Systems, Signals, and Responses......Page 848
How Do Cells Respond to Cell–Cell Signals?......Page 849
Phototropins as Blue-Light Receptors......Page 851
Auxin as the Phototropic Hormone......Page 852
Phytochrome Is a Red/Far-Red Receptor......Page 855
Canadian Research 37.1: Plant Signalling Networks Help Influence Proper Growth......Page 856
Signals That Promote Flowering......Page 857
The Statolith Hypothesis......Page 859
Auxin as the Gravitropic Signal......Page 860
Movement Responses......Page 861
Auxin and Apical Dominance......Page 862
Gibberellins and ABA: Growth and Dormancy......Page 863
Brassinosteroids and Body Size......Page 866
Ethylene and Senescence......Page 867
An Overview of Plant Growth Regulators......Page 868
How Do Plants Sense and Respond to Pathogens?......Page 870
How Do Plants Sense and Respond to Herbivore Attack?......Page 872
Chapter Review......Page 874
38. Plant Reproduction and Development......Page 877
Asexual Reproduction......Page 878
Sexual Reproduction and the Plant Life Cycle......Page 879
The General Structure of the Flower......Page 880
How Are Female Gametophytes Produced?......Page 882
How Are Male Gametophytes Produced?......Page 883
Canadian Issues 38.1: What Is the Effect of Agriculture on Wild Bee Abundance and Crop Pollination?......Page 884
Fertilization......Page 887
The Role of Drying in Seed Maturation......Page 888
Fruit Development and Seed Dispersal......Page 889
Seed Dormancy......Page 890
Seed Germination......Page 892
Embryogenesis......Page 893
Meristem Formation......Page 894
Which Genes Determine Leaf Structure and Shape?......Page 895
Canadian Research 38.1: Apoptosis during the Formation of Plant Leaves......Page 896
The Genetic Control of Flower Structures......Page 898
Chapter Review......Page 900
Big Picture: How Vascular Plants Work......Page 903
39. Animal Form and Function......Page 905
The Role of Fitness Trade-Offs......Page 906
39.2. Tissues, Organs, and Systems: How Does Structure Correlate with Function?......Page 908
Tissues Are Groups of Cells That Function as a Unit......Page 909
Organs and Organ Systems......Page 912
Surface Area/Volume Relationships: Theory......Page 913
Surface Area/Volume Relationships: Data......Page 914
Adaptations That Increase Surface Area......Page 915
Homeostasis: General Principles......Page 916
The Role of Regulation and Feedback......Page 917
Mechanisms of Heat Exchange......Page 918
Comparing Endothermy and Ectothermy......Page 919
Countercurrent Heat Exchangers......Page 920
Canadian Research 39.1: Freeze-Tolerant Animals......Page 921
Chapter Review......Page 922
40. Water and Electrolyte Balance in Animals......Page 925
Osmotic Stress in Seawater, in Freshwater, and on Land......Page 926
Types of Nitrogenous Wastes: Impact on Water Balance......Page 928
How Do Sharks Excrete Salt?......Page 929
Canadian Research 40.1: The Bamfield Marine Sciences Centre and Research on Shark Osmoregulation......Page 930
How Do Freshwater Fishes Osmoregulate?......Page 931
How Do Insects Minimize Water Loss from the Body Surface?......Page 932
The Structure of the Mammalian Kidney......Page 934
The Function of the Mammalian Kidney: An Overview......Page 935
Reabsorption: The Proximal Tubule......Page 936
Creating an Osmotic Gradient: The Loop of Henle......Page 937
Regulating Water and Electrolyte Balance: The Distal Tubule and Collecting Duct......Page 940
Urine Formation in Nonmammalian Vertebrates......Page 941
Chapter Review......Page 942
41. Animal Nutrition......Page 945
Meeting Human Nutritional Requirements......Page 946
Canadian Issues 41.1: Vitamin D Deficiency in Canada......Page 948
A Case Study: The Cichlid Throat Jaw......Page 950
Detecting the Nutritional Value of Food......Page 951
An Overview of Digestive Processes......Page 952
The Mouth and Esophagus......Page 953
The Stomach......Page 955
The Small Intestine......Page 957
The Large Intestine......Page 960
Insulin’s Role in Homeostasis......Page 961
Diabetes Mellitus Has Two Forms......Page 962
Canadian Research 41.1: Treating Diabetes Mellitus......Page 963
Chapter Review......Page 964
42. Gas Exchange and Circulation......Page 966
How Do Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Behave in Air?......Page 967
How Do Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Behave in Water?......Page 968
How Do Gills Work?......Page 969
How Do Insect Tracheae Work?......Page 971
How Do Vertebrate Lungs Work?......Page 973
Homeostatic Control of Ventilation......Page 974
Structure and Function of Hemoglobin......Page 976
CO2 Transport and the Buffering of Blood pH......Page 979
Canadian Research 42.1: Peter Hochachka and Physiological Adaptation in Animals......Page 980
42.5. Circulation......Page 981
What Is a Closed Circulatory System?......Page 982
How Does the Heart Work?......Page 984
Patterns in Blood Pressure and Blood Flow......Page 988
Chapter Review......Page 990
43. Animal Nervous Systems......Page 992
Types of Neurons......Page 993
An Introduction to Membrane Potentials......Page 994
How Is the Resting Potential Maintained?......Page 995
What Is an Action Potential?......Page 996
How Do Voltage-Gated Channels Work?......Page 997
How Is the Action Potential Propagated?......Page 998
Synapse Structure and Neurotransmitter Release......Page 1001
What Do Neurotransmitters Do?......Page 1002
Postsynaptic Potentials......Page 1003
Canadian Research 43.1: David Suzuki and the Discovery of the Genes Encoding Neuron Proteins......Page 1005
What Does the Peripheral Nervous System Do?......Page 1006
Functional Anatomy of the CNS......Page 1008
How Do Learning and Memory Work?......Page 1011
Chapter Review......Page 1013
44. Animal Sensory Systems......Page 1016
Sensory Transduction......Page 1017
How Do Sensory Cells Respond to Sound Waves and Other Forms of Pressure?......Page 1018
Hearing: The Mammalian Ear......Page 1019
Canadian Research 44.1: Why Do Wind Farms Kill Bats?......Page 1022
The Lateral Line System in Fishes and Amphibians......Page 1024
The Vertebrate Eye......Page 1025
Taste: Detecting Molecules in the Mouth......Page 1030
Olfaction: Detecting Molecules in the Air......Page 1031
Thermoreception: Sensing Temperature......Page 1033
Electroreception: Sensing Electric Fields......Page 1034
Chapter Review......Page 1035
45. Animal Movement......Page 1038
The Sliding-Filament Model......Page 1039
How Do Actin and Myosin Interact?......Page 1040
How Do Neurons Initiate Contraction?......Page 1042
Smooth Muscle......Page 1043
Skeletal Muscle......Page 1044
45.3. Skeletal Systems......Page 1046
Hydrostatic Skeletons......Page 1047
Endoskeletons......Page 1048
Exoskeletons......Page 1049
How Do Biologists Study Locomotion?......Page 1050
Canadian Research 45.1: Tyrannosaur Tails......Page 1052
Size Matters......Page 1053
Chapter Review......Page 1055
46. Chemical Signals in Animals......Page 1058
Major Categories of Chemical Signals......Page 1059
Hormone Signalling Pathways......Page 1060
What Makes Up the Endocrine System?......Page 1061
A Breakthrough in Measuring Hormone Levels......Page 1062
Three Chemical Classes of Hormones......Page 1063
Steroid Hormones Bind to Intracellular Receptors......Page 1064
Polypeptide Hormones Bind to Receptors on the Plasma Membrane......Page 1065
46.3. What Do Hormones Do?......Page 1067
How Do Hormones Direct Developmental Processes?......Page 1068
Canadian Issues 46.1: Estrogens in the Environment......Page 1070
How Do Hormones Coordinate Responses to Stressors?......Page 1071
Canadian Research 46.1: Cortisol Mediates Stress in Wildlife......Page 1073
The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland......Page 1074
Control of Adrenaline by Sympathetic Nerves......Page 1076
Chapter Review......Page 1077
47. Animal Reproduction and Development......Page 1079
Switching Reproductive Modes: A Case History......Page 1080
Mechanisms of Sexual Reproduction: Gametogenesis......Page 1082
The Male Reproductive System......Page 1084
The Female Reproductive System......Page 1085
Internal Fertilization......Page 1087
The Cell Biology of Fertilization......Page 1089
Why Do Some Females Lay Eggs While Others Give Birth?......Page 1090
Cleavage......Page 1092
Gastrulation......Page 1093
Organogenesis......Page 1094
Canadian Research 47.1: Apoptosis during the Morphogenesis of Chick Embryos......Page 1096
Which Hormones Control Puberty?......Page 1097
Which Hormones Control the Menstrual Cycle in Humans?......Page 1098
Major Events during Human Pregnancy......Page 1101
Birth......Page 1103
Canadian Issues 47.1: Canada’s Assisted Human Reproduction Act......Page 1104
Chapter Review......Page 1105
48. The Immune System in Animals......Page 1107
Barriers to Entry......Page 1108
The Innate Immune Response......Page 1109
48.2. Adaptive Immunity: Recognition......Page 1111
An Introduction to Lymphocytes......Page 1112
Lymphocytes Recognize a Diverse Array of Antigens......Page 1113
Canadian Research 48.1: Tak Wah Mak and the Discovery of the T-Cell Receptor......Page 1115
The Clonal Selection Theory......Page 1117
T-Cell Activation......Page 1118
B-Cell Activation and Antibody Secretion......Page 1120
How Are Extracellular Pathogens Eliminated?......Page 1121
How Are Intracellular Pathogens Eliminated?......Page 1122
Why Does the Immune System Reject Foreign Tissues and Organs?......Page 1123
Responding to Future Infections: Immunological Memory......Page 1124
Immunodeficiency Diseases......Page 1126
Chapter Review......Page 1127
Big Picture: How Humans Work......Page 1129
49. An Introduction to Ecology......Page 1131
Organismal Ecology......Page 1132
Canadian Research 49.1: Salmon Migration in a Warming World......Page 1133
Biotic Factors......Page 1135
History Matters: Past Abiotic and Biotic Factors Influence Present Patterns......Page 1136
Biotic and Abiotic Factors Interact......Page 1137
What Causes Seasonality in Weather?......Page 1139
What Regional Effects Do Mountains and Oceans Have on Climate?......Page 1141
Natural Biomes......Page 1142
Anthropogenic Biomes......Page 1144
How Will Global Climate Change Affect Terrestrial Biomes?......Page 1145
49.5. Types of Aquatic Biomes......Page 1146
Water Depth and Sunlight Availability......Page 1147
Water Flow......Page 1148
Nutrient Availability......Page 1149
How Are Aquatic Biomes Affected by Humans?......Page 1150
Canadian Research 49.2: The Future of Canada’s Lakes and Wetlands......Page 1152
Chapter Review......Page 1154
50. Behavioural Ecology......Page 1156
Canadian Research 50.1: Do Male Redback Spiders Benefit from Being Eaten by Their Mates?......Page 1157
Types of Behaviour: An Overview......Page 1159
Ultimate Causes: Optimal Foraging......Page 1160
Proximate Causes: How Is Sexual Activity Triggered in Anolis Lizards?......Page 1162
Ultimate Causes: Sexual Selection......Page 1163
Proximate Causes: How Do Animals Navigate?......Page 1164
Canadian Issues 50.1: The Whisky Jack: Canada’s National Bird?......Page 1165
Ultimate Causes: Why Do Animals Migrate?......Page 1166
Communicate?......Page 1168
When Is Communication Honest or Deceitful?......Page 1169
Kin Selection......Page 1171
Quantitative Methods 50.1: Calculating the Coefficient of Relatedness......Page 1172
Reciprocal Altruism......Page 1173
Chapter Review......Page 1174
51. Population Ecology......Page 1177
Geographic Distribution......Page 1178
Quantitative Methods 51.1: Mark–Recapture Studies......Page 1179
Life Tables......Page 1180
Quantitative Methods 51.2: Using Life Tables to Calculate Population Growth Rates......Page 1182
Canadian Research 51.1: Tyrannosaur Life Tables......Page 1183
The Role of Life History......Page 1184
Exponential Growth......Page 1185
Logistic Growth......Page 1186
Quantitative Methods 51.3: Using Growth Models to Predict Population Growth......Page 1187
What Factors Limit Population Size?......Page 1188
Why Do Some Populations Cycle?......Page 1190
How Do Metapopulations Change through Time?......Page 1192
Age Structure in Human Populations......Page 1193
Analyzing Change in the Growth Rate of Human Populations......Page 1194
Using Life-Table Data......Page 1196
Preserving Metapopulations......Page 1197
Chapter Review......Page 1199
52. Community Ecology......Page 1201
Commensalism......Page 1202
Competition......Page 1203
Consumption......Page 1206
Mutualism......Page 1210
Why Are Some Species More Important than Others in Structuring Communities?......Page 1212
How Predictable Are Communities?......Page 1214
Disturbance and Change in Ecological Communities......Page 1215
Succession: The Development of Communities after Disturbance......Page 1216
52.4. Patterns in Species Richness......Page 1219
Quantitative Methods 52.1: Measuring Species Diversity......Page 1220
Global Patterns in Species Richness......Page 1221
Canadian Research 52.1: Why Is Biodiversity Higher in the Tropics?......Page 1223
Chapter Review......Page 1224
53. Ecosystems and Global Ecology......Page 1227
How Efficient Are Autotrophs at Capturing Solar Energy?......Page 1228
What Happens to the Biomass of Autotrophs?......Page 1229
Energy Transfer between Trophic Levels......Page 1231
Global Patterns in Productivity......Page 1233
Nutrient Cycling within Ecosystems......Page 1235
Canadian Research 53.1: Can Predators Increase Nutrient Cycling?......Page 1236
Global Biogeochemical Cycles......Page 1238
What Is the Cause of Global Climate Change?......Page 1242
How Much Will the Climate Change?......Page 1243
Biological Effects of Climate Change......Page 1246
Canadian Issues 53.1: Insect Outbreaks Result from and Contribute to Climate Change......Page 1248
Consequences to Net Primary Productivity......Page 1249
Chapter Review......Page 1250
54. Biodiversity and Conservation Biology......Page 1253
Biodiversity Can Be Measured and Analyzed at Several Levels......Page 1254
How Many Species Are Living Today?......Page 1256
Where Is Biodiversity Highest?......Page 1257
Multiple Interacting Threats......Page 1259
How Will These Threats Affect Future Extinction Rates?......Page 1263
Quantitative Methods 54.1: Species–Area Plots......Page 1264
Biological Benefits of Biodiversity......Page 1266
Ecosystem Services: Economic and Social Benefits of Biodiversity and Ecosystems......Page 1268
An Ethical Dimension......Page 1269
Addressing the Ultimate Causes of Loss......Page 1270
Conservation Strategies to Preserve Genetic Diversity, Species, and Ecosystem Function......Page 1271
Canadian Issues 54.1: SARA—Canada’s Species at Risk Act......Page 1273
Take-Home Message......Page 1276
Chapter Review......Page 1277
Big Picture: Ecology......Page 1279
Appendix A: Answers......Page 1282
Glossary......Page 1334
Credits......Page 1372
Index......Page 1374
Back Cover......Page 1414