Biological Invasions in South Africa

Foreword
Acknowledgments
Contents
Contributors
Abbreviations
Part I: Background
	Chapter 1: Biological Invasions in South Africa: An Overview
		1.1 Why South Africa Is an Interesting Place for Biological Invasions?
			1.1.1 A Rich and Varied Biodiversity
			1.1.2 A Rich and Varied History of Biodiversity Conservation
			1.1.3 A Rich and Varied History of Introductions
			1.1.4 A Rich and Varied Socio-political History
			1.1.5 A Long History of Managing and Regulating Biological Invasions
			1.1.6 A Strong Research Tradition in Invasion Science
		1.2 How Many Alien Species Are There in South Africa?
		1.3 Estimating the Cost of Invasions to South Africa
		1.4 Scope and Arrangement of This Book
		1.5 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 2: A Brief, Selective History of Researchers and Research Initiatives Related to Biological Invasions in South Africa
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Biological Control of Invasive Plants: Research and Implementation 1913-Present
			2.2.1 Biological Control Research at the Plant Protection Research Institute
			2.2.2 Establishment of the Centre for Biological Control
		2.3 The South African Forestry Research Institute (1936-1990)
		2.4 The Establishment of Long-Term Monitoring Plots (1966-Present)
		2.5 The Scope Project on the Ecology of Biological Invasions (1980-1989)
		2.6 The NPER Sub-Programme on Invasive Biota in the CSIR (1982-1985)
		2.7 Research Conducted by the Scientific Services Division of South African National Parks (1987-Present)
		2.8 Research on Alien Plant Invasions at the CSIR (1990-Present)
		2.9 Research on Biological Invasions at the Institute for Plant Conservation (1993-2004)
		2.10 Research Funded by the Working for Water Programme (1995-Present)
		2.11 The DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence for Invasion Biology (2004-Present)
		2.12 Work on Biological Invasions at the South African National Biodiversity Institute (2008-Present)
		2.13 Social and Historical Studies Relevant to Invasion Science
		2.14 Discussion
		References
Part II: Biological Invasions in South Africa
	Chapter 3: The Biogeography of South African Terrestrial Plant Invasions
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 A Brief History of Plant Invasions in South Africa
		3.3 How Many Taxa? South Africa´s Alien, Naturalised and Invasive Flora
			3.3.1 A National List of the Alien Flora?
			3.3.2 A Preliminary Enumeration of South Africa´s Naturalised Flora
		3.4 Extent of Invasions
		3.5 The Macroecology of Plant Invasions in South Africa
			3.5.1 Plant Invasions as a Biogeographical Assay
			3.5.2 Correlates of Alien and Native Species Richness
		3.6 Conclusions
		Electronic Supplementary Material
		References
	Chapter 4: Invasive Alien Aquatic Plants in South African Freshwater Ecosystems
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Invasive Macrophytes
		4.3 Pathways of Introduction
		4.4 Drivers of Invasion
		4.5 Impacts
		4.6 Control
		4.7 Regime Shifts and Alternate Stable States
		4.8 Discussion
		References
	Chapter 5: Terrestrial Vertebrate Invasions in South Africa
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 History of Introductions, Pathways and Vectors
		5.3 Mammalia
			5.3.1 Sus scrofa (Domestic Pig)
			5.3.2 Felis catus (Domestic Cat)
			5.3.3 Equus asinus (Donkeys)
			5.3.4 Equus ferus caballus (Domestic Horses)
			5.3.5 Dama dama (Fallow Deer)
			5.3.6 Hippotragus equinus (Roan Antelope)
			5.3.7 Rusa unicolor (Sambar Deer)
			5.3.8 Hemitragus jemlahicus (Himalayan Tahr)
			5.3.9 Capra hircus (Goats)
			5.3.10 Oryctolagus cuniculus (European Rabbit)
			5.3.11 Rodentia
				5.3.11.1 Mus musculus (House mice)
				5.3.11.2 Rattus rattus (House Rats)
				5.3.11.3 Rattus norvegicus (Brown Rat)
				5.3.11.4 Rattus tanezumi (Asian House Rat)
				5.3.11.5 Sciurus carolinensis (Grey squirrel)
		5.4 Aves
			5.4.1 Invasive Birds in South Africa
			5.4.2 Anas platyrhynchos (Mallards)
			5.4.3 Passer domesticus indicus (House Sparrows)
			5.4.4 Fringilla coelebs (Chaffinch)
			5.4.5 Alectoris chukar (Chukar Partridge)
			5.4.6 Columba livia (Rock Doves)
			5.4.7 Starlings (Genus Sturnus)
				5.4.7.1 Sturnus vulgaris (Common Starling)
				5.4.7.2 Sturnus tristis (Common Myna)
			5.4.8 Psittacula krameri (Rose-Ringed Parakeet)
			5.4.9 Corvus splendens (House Crows)
			5.4.10 Pavo cristatus (Common Peafowl)
		5.5 Reptilia
			5.5.1 Invasive Reptiles in South Africa
			5.5.2 Hemidactylus mabouia (Tropical House Gecko)
			5.5.3 Lygodactylus capensis (Common Dwarf Gecko)
			5.5.4 Indotyphlops braminus (Flowerpot Snake)
		5.6 Amphibia
			5.6.1 Hyperolius marmoratus (Painted Reed Frog)
			5.6.2 Sclerophrys gutturalis (Guttural Toad)
		5.7 Future Perspectives for Invasive Vertebrates
		References
	Chapter 6: Alien Freshwater Fauna in South Africa
		6.1 Introduction
			6.1.1 Background
			6.1.2 Pathways and Vectors
		6.2 South Africa´s Alien Freshwater Fauna
			6.2.1 Protozoa
			6.2.2 Platyhelminthes
			6.2.3 Cnidaria
			6.2.4 Nematoda
			6.2.5 Annelida
			6.2.6 Mollusca
			6.2.7 Crustacea
			6.2.8 Insecta
			6.2.9 Teleostei
		6.3 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 7: Alien Terrestrial Invertebrates in South Africa
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Composition of the Known Alien Terrestrial Invertebrate Fauna
		7.3 Dates, Rates and Routes of Introduction
		7.4 Biological Control Agents
		7.5 Impact of Invasive Invertebrates
		7.6 Risk Assessment
		7.7 Conclusion and Research Gaps
		References
	Chapter 8: Biological Invasions in South Africa´s Offshore Sub-Antarctic Territories
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Human Activities at the Prince Edward Islands
		8.3 Terrestrial Invasions
			8.3.1 Vertebrates
			8.3.2 Free-living Invertebrates
			8.3.3 Plants
			8.3.4 Microbes
		8.4 Freshwater Invaders
		8.5 Marine Invaders
		8.6 Changes to the Likelihood of Introductions and Spread of Invasive Alien Species
			8.6.1 Terrestrial Invasions
			8.6.2 Marine Invasions
		8.7 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 9: Coastal Invasions: The South African Context
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Status of Marine Alien Species
		9.3 Geographic Patterns Around a Variable Coast
		9.4 Vectors Driving Marine Invasions
		9.5 Alien Species in Marine Protected Areas
		9.6 Impacts of Dominant Intertidal Invaders
		9.7 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 10: Pathogens of Vertebrate Animals as Invasive Species: Insights from South Africa
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Animal Diseases
			10.2.1 Canine Rabies
			10.2.2 Bovine Tuberculosis
			10.2.3 Rinderpest
		10.3 Human Diseases
			10.3.1 Smallpox
			10.3.2 Measles
			10.3.3 Human Immunodeficiency Virus
		10.4 Infectious Agents That Have Moved Out of Africa
			10.4.1 West Nile Virus
			10.4.2 African Swine Fever
		10.5 The Future
		References
	Chapter 11: Biological Invasions in South Africa´s Urban Ecosystems: Patterns, Processes, Impacts, and Management
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Patterns and Processes
			11.2.1 Plants
			11.2.2 Vertebrates
		11.3 Positive and Negative Effects of Invasive Alien Species in Urban Areas
			11.3.1 Ecosystem Services
			11.3.2 Ecosystem Disservices (EDS)
		11.4 Management
			11.4.1 Conflicts of Interest
			11.4.2 Socio-ecological Challenges
		11.5 The Way Forward
		Electronic Supplementary Material
		References
Part III: Drivers of Invasion
	Chapter 12: South Africa´s Pathways of Introduction and Dispersal and How They Have Changed Over Time
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 How Have Taxa Been Introduced to and Dispersed Within South Africa?
			12.2.1 Importance of the Pathways of Introduction and Dispersal
			12.2.2 Changes Over Time to the Pathways of Introduction and Dispersal
				12.2.2.1 Pre-colonial Period (Before 1650)
				12.2.2.2 Colonial Period (1650-1910)
				12.2.2.3 Post-colonial Period (1910-1994)
				12.2.2.4 Post-democratisation Period (1994-2018)
				12.2.2.5 The Future
		12.3 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 13: The Role of Environmental Factors in Promoting and Limiting Biological Invasions in South Africa
		13.1 What Does South Africa Look Like to an Alien Species?
		13.2 Geomorphology
		13.3 Soils
		13.4 Climate
			13.4.1 Species Distribution Models
		13.5 Extreme Climatic Events and Large Infrequent Disturbances
			13.5.1 Floods
			13.5.2 Droughts
		13.6 Fire
		13.7 Interactions Between Land Use and Other Drivers
		13.8 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 14: Biotic Interactions as Mediators of Biological Invasions: Insights from South Africa
		14.1 Introduction
			14.1.1 Ecological Fitting, Co-xenic Associations, and Co-introductions
			14.1.2 The Structure of Ecological Interaction Networks and Their Infiltration by Invasive Species
			14.1.3 Eco-evolutionary Experience and Biological Invasions
		14.2 Parasitism
			14.2.1 Plants
			14.2.2 Marine Ecosystems
			14.2.3 Freshwater Fish
			14.2.4 Insects
		14.3 Mutualism
			14.3.1 Plants and Soil Bacteria
			14.3.2 Pollination
			14.3.3 Seed Dispersal
		14.4 Selected Examples of Impacts on Native Species Biotic Interactions and Ecological Networks
		14.5 Synthesis and Food for Thought
		References
Part IV: Impacts of Invasion
	Chapter 15: Impacts of Plant Invasions on Terrestrial Water Flows in South Africa
		15.1 Introduction
			15.1.1 Brief History of Concern About Hydrological Impacts
		15.2 Vegetation and Plant Characteristics and Site-Specific Conditions
		15.3 Modelling Versus Measuring Water Resource Impacts
		15.4 Species and Stand-Level Studies
		15.5 Extrapolating to Larger Spatial and Longer Temporal Scales
		15.6 Translating Impacts on Runoff to Impacts on Yields
		15.7 Impacts of Potential Invasion Scenarios and Climate Change
			15.7.1 Invasion Scenarios
			15.7.2 Climate Change and Hydrological Impacts of Invasions
		15.8 Policy and Governance
		15.9 Financial and Economic Impacts of Water Lost Through Invasions
		15.10 Conflicts and Controversies Relating to Their Hydrological Impacts and the Impacts of Clearing
		References
	Chapter 16: The Impact of Invasive Alien Plants on Rangelands in South Africa
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Rangelands in South Africa
			16.2.1 Types of Rangelands in South Africa
			16.2.2 Shifts in the Composition of Herbivores
			16.2.3 Increases in the Intensity of Grazing
			16.2.4 The Role of Fire
			16.2.5 The Influence of Fencing
		16.3 Invasive Plants in Rangelands
		16.4 Benefits of Alien Plants to Rangelands
		16.5 Negative Impacts of Invasions on Rangelands
			16.5.1 Physical and Economic Impacts
			16.5.2 Prosopis Species (Mesquite)
			16.5.3 Acacia mearnsii (Black Wattle)
			16.5.4 Parthenium hysterophorus (Parthenium)
			16.5.5 Chromolaena odorata (Triffid Weed)
			16.5.6 Opuntia ficus-indica (Mission Prickly Pear)
		16.6 Management of Rangelands
		16.7 Prognosis
		Electronic Supplementary Material
		References
	Chapter 17: An Evaluation of the Impacts of Alien Species on Biodiversity in South Africa Using Different Assessment Methods
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Assessing the Impact of Alien Species on Biodiversity
			17.2.1 Impact-Scoring Schemes
				17.2.1.1 Grasses
				17.2.1.2 Gastropods
				17.2.1.3 Fish
				17.2.1.4 Amphibians
				17.2.1.5 Birds
				17.2.1.6 Mammals
			17.2.2 Expert Opinion Assessments
				17.2.2.1 Plants
				17.2.2.2 Invertebrates
				17.2.2.3 Mammals
				17.2.2.4 Fishes
			17.2.3 Impacts Identified During Red-Listing Processes
			17.2.4 Impacts on Biodiversity at a Biome Scale
		17.3 Synthesis
		References
Part V: Management of Invasions
	Chapter 18: Biological Invasion Policy and Legislation Development and Implementation in South Africa
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Background to Current Governance, Policy, and Legislation
		18.3 The Early Days: 1860 to 1909-Colonialism and Weeds
		18.4 Dealing with Union: 1910 to 1934-Regulatory Hiatus
		18.5 Intentionally Introduced Invasive Species 1860-1935 (Post Union But Pre-independence)
			18.5.1 Alien Trees as a Solution to Problems
			18.5.2 The Jointed Cactus and Weeds Acts
		18.6 An Expanding Agenda (1935-1993)
			18.6.1 Expanding the Policy Drivers to Include Water and the Environment (1970-)
			18.6.2 CARA and the Return to Form (1983-)
			18.6.3 Moving Beyond Plants (1983-)
			18.6.4 1991: Rethinking Policy
			18.6.5 The Immediate Pre-democracy Status Quo
		18.7 Governance in the Democratic South Africa (1994-Present): Internalising a Rights-Based Culture
			18.7.1 The Constitution
			18.7.2 The Draft Biodiversity Policy
			18.7.3 The Biodiversity Act
			18.7.4 Legal Challenges
			18.7.5 The ``Working for´´ Programmes: The Only Coherent National Programme for Managing Invasive Species?
		18.8 Discussion and Future Directions
			18.8.1 The Policy Vacuum
			18.8.2 Law, Compliance and Enforcement
			18.8.3 The Future
		Electronic Supplementary Material
		References
	Chapter 19: More than a Century of Biological Control Against Invasive Alien Plants in South Africa: A Synoptic View of What H...
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 Evaluating the Effectiveness of Biological Control of Invasive Alien Plants
		19.3 What Has Been Forgotten over the Passage of Time?
		19.4 Additional Considerations, Caveats and Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 20: Analysing the Risks Posed by Biological Invasions to South Africa
		20.1 Risk Analysis for Biological Invasions
			20.1.1 Risk Assessment
			20.1.2 Risk Management
			20.1.3 Risk Communication
		20.2 Risk Analysis in South Africa
			20.2.1 Import of Alien Species
			20.2.2 Listing of Alien Species Under National Legislation
			20.2.3 Permits for Restricted Activities
			20.2.4 Non-regulated Alien Species
			20.2.5 Release Applications for Biological Control Agents
		20.3 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 21: The Extent and Effectiveness of Alien Plant Control Projects in South Africa
		21.1 Introduction
		21.2 Alien Plant Control Projects
		21.3 Alien Plant Eradication Projects
		21.4 Management Plans for Invasive Species
		21.5 Management Plans for Invaded Areas
		21.6 National-Scale or Species-Specific Assessments of Management Effectiveness
		21.7 The Effectiveness of Management in Selected Areas
			21.7.1 Monitoring of Control Effectiveness
			21.7.2 Alien Plant Control Projects in the Cape Floristic Region
			21.7.3 Management of Prosopis Species in the Northern Cape
			21.7.4 Invasive Plant Control in the Kruger National Park (Mpumalanga and Limpopo Provinces)
			21.7.5 Control of Chromolaena odorata in the Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park, KwaZulu-Natal
		21.8 Managing Conflict Species
			21.8.1 Conflict Species in South Africa
			21.8.2 Catering for Conflict Species in Regulations
			21.8.3 Using Biological Control Agents to Reduce Seed Output
			21.8.4 Using Sterile Cultivars
		21.9 Returns on Investment from Control Measures
		21.10 Synthesis
		References
	Chapter 22: Experience and Lessons from Alien and Invasive Animal Control Projects in South Africa
		22.1 Introduction
		22.2 Freshwater Invertebrates
			22.2.1 Procambarus clarkii (Red Swamp Crayfish)
		22.3 Marine Invertebrates
			22.3.1 Carcinus maenas (European Shore Crab)
			22.3.2 Tetrapygus niger (Chilean Black Urchin)
		22.4 Terrestrial Invertebrates
			22.4.1 Otala punctata (Freckled Edible Snail)
			22.4.2 Trogoderma granarium (Khapra Beetle)
			22.4.3 Fruit Flies (Tephritidae) as Exemplar Invasive Insect Species
			22.4.4 Polistes dominula (European Paper Wasp) and Vespula germanica (German Wasp)
		22.5 Freshwater Fish
			22.5.1 Micropterus Species (Black Basses)
			22.5.2 Oncorhynchus mykiss (Rainbow Trout)
			22.5.3 Cyprinus carpio (Common Carp)
			22.5.4 Clarias gariepinus (Sharptooth Catfish)
			22.5.5 Multi-species Extirpation Projects
		22.6 Amphibians
			22.6.1 Sclerophrys gutturalis (Guttural Toad)
			22.6.2 Xenopus laevis (African Clawed Frog)
		22.7 Reptiles
		22.8 Birds
			22.8.1 Corvus splendens (House Crow)
			22.8.2 Anas platyrhynchos (Mallard)
		22.9 Mammals
			22.9.1 Hemitragus jemlahicus (Himalayan Tahr)
			22.9.2 Sus scrofa (Domestic Pig)
			22.9.3 Felis catus (Domestic Cat)
			22.9.4 Oryctolagus cuniculus (European Rabbit)
			22.9.5 Dama dama (Fallow Deer)
		22.10 Synthesis
			22.10.1 Species Which Are Not Yet Under Adequate Control
			22.10.2 Stakeholder Management
			22.10.3 Conflict Management
			22.10.4 Scaling Up
			22.10.5 Financial and Contract Management
			22.10.6 Critical Assessment of Control Efforts to Date
		References
	Chapter 23: Biological Invasions and Ecological Restoration in South Africa
		23.1 Introduction
		23.2 Global and National Contexts
			23.2.1 The Need for Ecological Restoration
			23.2.2 Restoration Ecology
			23.2.3 Biological Invasions and Restoration Ecology
			23.2.4 Biological Invasions and Restoration Ecology in South Africa
		23.3 Restoration After Biological Invasion
			23.3.1 The Restorative Continuum
			23.3.2 Ecological Restoration Following Invasion: A Conceptual Framework
		23.4 Best Practice: Restoration Planning
			23.4.1 Ecological Restoration Goals
			23.4.2 Prioritisation
			23.4.3 Costs and Benefits of Restoration Projects
		23.5 Best Practice: Restoration Implementation
			23.5.1 Legacy Effects, Ecosystem Functions and Drivers
			23.5.2 Implementation: Spontaneous Regeneration
			23.5.3 Implementation: Active Restoration
		23.6 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 24: The Social Dimensions of Biological Invasions in South Africa
		24.1 Introduction
		24.2 Humans as Causes of Alien Species Invasions
			24.2.1 Proposition 1a: Intentional Introductions Were and Continue to Reflect the Social Ethos of the Time
			24.2.2 Proposition 1b: People Go to Great Lengths to Ensure that Newly Introduced Species Become Well Established
			24.2.3 Proposition 1c: Human-Mediated Modifications Help Invasive Species to Establish
		24.3 People´s Conceptulisation and Perceptions of Invasive Alien Species
			24.3.1 Proposition 2a: How People Think About, Value and Study Invasive Species is Strongly Shaped by Social-ecological Contex...
			24.3.2 Proposition 2b: Knowledge and Awareness of Invasive Alien Species is Low Amongst the General Public
			24.3.3 Proposition 2c: Personal Values are the Primary Factor Affecting Perceptions of Invasive Alien Species and Their Control
		24.4 The Effects of Invasive Species on People
			24.4.1 Proposition 3a: Specific Social-Ecological Contexts Mediate How Invasive Species Affect People
			24.4.2 Proposition 3b: Social Science Research on Invasive Species Primarily Focuses on Negative Effects of Invasive Alien Spe...
			24.4.3 Proposition 3c: The Negative Social Impacts of Invasive Species on Local Livelihoods are of More Concern to People than...
		24.5 People´s Response to Invasive Species
			24.5.1 Proposition 4a: People are Less Willing to Manage Species Regarded as `Charismatic´
			24.5.2 Proposition 4b: Social Heterogeneity Increases Conflicts Around the Management of Biological Invasions
			24.5.3 Proposition 4c: Engagement with Society is Key to Successful Management
		24.6 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 25: Education, Training and Capacity-Building in the Field of Biological Invasions in South Africa
		25.1 Introduction
		25.2 Invasive Organisms in the South African School Curriculum
			25.2.1 The Iimbovane Outreach Project: Exploring South African Biodiversity and Change
			25.2.2 Eco-schools
		25.3 Biological Invasions and Biological Control Studies at Tertiary Level in South Africa
		25.4 Non-degree Training
		25.5 Awareness-Raising Beyond Formal Education
		25.6 Invasive Alien Species on South African Television
		25.7 Communication and Advocacy on Invasive Alien Species by the South African Government
		25.8 Other Government Initiatives
		25.9 Capacity Development/Building: Growth of Employment in the Sector
		25.10 What Do Other Countries Do?
		25.11 Discussion
		References
Part VI: New Insights
	Chapter 26: South Africa as a Donor of Naturalised and Invasive Plants to Other Parts of the World
		26.1 Introduction
		26.2 Methodological Assumptions
			26.2.1 Naturalised Species: the GloNAF Database
			26.2.2 Invasive Species
			26.2.3 Assuming a South African Origin
		26.3 South Africa´s Contribution to the Global Naturalised Alien Flora
		26.4 Exchange of Naturalised Aliens Between South Africa and Other Continents: Donor-Recipient Dynamics
		26.5 Comparison of South African Naturalised Flora with Neighbouring African Countries
		26.6 Plants Native to South Africa that Are Invasive Elsewhere in the World
			26.6.1 The Big Picture
			26.6.2 Taxonomic Patterns
		26.7 Naturalised Distributions and Invasive Status as Different Dimensions of Success
		Appendix 26.1: List of 212 Plant Taxa Native to South Africa that Are Listed as Invasive in the Literature
		References
	Chapter 27: South Africa as a Donor of Alien Animals
		27.1 Introduction
		27.2 Methods
		27.3 Results and Discussion
			27.3.1 Pathways
			27.3.2 Non-South African Origins
			27.3.3 South Africa as a Bridgehead for Invasions
				27.3.3.1 Forestry Pests
				27.3.3.2 Crayfish
				27.3.3.3 Frogs
				27.3.3.4 Fish
			27.3.4 Domestic Exotics
			27.3.5 Taxonomic Considerations
		27.4 Species Accounts
			27.4.1 Mammals
				27.4.1.1 The Hippopotamus, Hippopotamus amphibius
				27.4.1.2 Common Warthog, Phacochoerus africanus
				27.4.1.3 Bushpigs, Potamochoerus porcus
				27.4.1.4 Gemsbok, Oryx gazella
			27.4.2 Birds
				27.4.2.1 Common Ostrich, Struthio camelus
				27.4.2.2 Egyptian Goose, Alopochen aegyptiaca
				27.4.2.3 Pin-tailed Whydah, Vidua macroura
				27.4.2.4 Laughing Dove, Spilopelia senegalensis
				27.4.2.5 Village Weaver, Ploceus cucullatus
				27.4.2.6 Lesser Masked Weaver, Ploceus intermedius
				27.4.2.7 Yellow Canary, Serinus flaviventris
				27.4.2.8 Cape Canary, Serinus canicollis
				27.4.2.9 Common Waxbills, Estrilda astrild
				27.4.2.10 Bronze Munia, Lonchura cucullata
				27.4.2.11 Yellow-Crowned Bishop, Euplectes afer
				27.4.2.12 Helmeted Guineafowl, Numida meleagris
				27.4.2.13 African Sacred Ibis, Threskiornis aethiopicus
			27.4.3 Amphibians
				27.4.3.1 The African Clawed Frog, Xenopus laevis
				27.4.3.2 The Guttural Toad, Sclerophrys gutturalis
				27.4.3.3 Clicking Stream Frog, Strongylopus grayii
			27.4.4 Reptiles
				27.4.4.1 The Nile Monitor, Varanus niloticus
				27.4.4.2 The Tropical House Gecko, Hemidactylus mabouia
				27.4.4.3 Cape Dwarf Chameleon, Bradypodion pumilum
			27.4.5 Fish
				27.4.5.1 Indo-Pacific Lionfish, Pterois volitans and P. miles
				27.4.5.2 Chubbyhead Barb, Enteromius anoplus
				27.4.5.3 African Sharp Toothed Catfish, Clarias gariepinus
				27.4.5.4 Mozambique Tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus
			27.4.6 Invertebrates
				27.4.6.1 The Geranium Bronze Butterfly, Cacyreus marshalli
				27.4.6.2 South African Mantis, Miomantis caffra
				27.4.6.3 Brown Widow Spider, Latrodectus geometricus
				27.4.6.4 Brown Mussel, Perna perna
				27.4.6.5 Shell-Boring Polychaete, Terebrasabella heterouncinata
				27.4.6.6 Spionid Worm, Boccardia pseudonatrix
		27.5 Conclusions
		Electronic Supplementary Material
		References
	Chapter 28: Knowing-Doing Continuum or Knowing-Doing Gap? Information Flow Between Researchers and Managers of Biological Inva...
		28.1 Introduction
		28.2 The Role-Players and Challenges in the Knowing-Doing Continuum in South Africa
		28.3 Efforts to Promote the Exchange of Ideas Between Managers and Researchers
		28.4 Manager´s Perceptions and Needs
		28.5 Formulation of Research Questions by Managers
		28.6 Management Recommendations Made by Researchers
		28.7 Researcher´s Recommendations and Managers Needs
		28.8 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 29: Biological Invasions as a Component of South Africa´s Global Change Research Effort
		29.1 Introduction
		29.2 Methods
		29.3 Results and Discussion
			29.3.1 Broad Global Change Research Patterns in South Africa
			29.3.2 How Do Biological Invasions Interact with Other Drivers of Global Change?
		29.4 Differences Between Realms
		29.5 The Future of Global Change and Global Change Research
		Electronic Supplementary Material
		References
	Chapter 30: South Africa´s Centre for Invasion Biology: An Experiment in Invasion Science for Society
		30.1 Introduction
		30.2 Guiding Principles
		30.3 Achievements in Key Performance Areas
			30.3.1 Research
			30.3.2 Education and Training
			30.3.3 Networking
			30.3.4 Information Brokerage
			30.3.5 Service Provision
		30.4 Conclusions
		References
Part VII: The Way Forward
	Chapter 31: Potential Futures of Biological Invasions in South Africa
		31.1 Introduction
		31.2 The Long-Term: What Will Invasions Look Like 200-2000 Years from Now?
		31.3 The Year 2070: What Will Biological Invasions Look Like in South Africa When Children Born Today Are the Decision Makers?
		31.4 The Year 2025: What Will Biological Invasions Looks Like After the Next Funding/Political Cycle?
		31.5 Possible Ways Forward: Examples from South Africa
			31.5.1 Coastal vs. Off-Shore Ecosystems
			31.5.2 The Management of Invasions in Arid Rangelands: Prosopis Species
			31.5.3 The Need for Taxonomic Services and Well-Curated Comprehensive Lists of Alien Species
			31.5.4 Regulatory Directions
			31.5.5 A New Green Deal and Landscape Stewards
		31.6 Conclusions
		References
Glossary
References
General Index
Taxonomic Index