Biological Control in Latin America and the Caribbean: Its Rich History and Bright Future

Cover
Biological Control in Latin America and the Caribbean: Its Rich History and Bright Future
Copyright
Contents
About the Editors
List of Contributors
Foreword
Preface
Dedication and Acknowledgements
Glossary
1 Biological Control in Latin America and the Caribbean: Information Sources, Organizations, Types and Approaches in Biological Control
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Literature on Biological Control in Latin America and the Caribbean
	1.3 International and Regional Organizations working on Biological Control in Latin America and the Caribbean
		1.3.1 The Centre for Agriculture and Biosciences International (CABI)
		1.3.2 The Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI)
		1.3.3 The Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers (CGIAR)
		1.3.4 The Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA)
		1.3.5 The Tropical Agriculture Research and Higher Education Center (CATIE)
		1.3.6 The International Regional Organization for Plant Protection and Animal Health (OIRSA)
		1.3.7 The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean (FAO)
		1.3.8 The Neotropical Regional Section of the International Organisation for Biological Control (IOBC/NTRS)
		1.3.9 National universities and research institutes
		1.3.10 National biological control, entomological, microbiological and phytopathological societies
	1.4 Types of Biological Control
		1.4.1 Natural control
		1.4.2 Conservation biological control
		1.4.3 Classical biological control
		1.4.4 Augmentative biological control
		1.4.5 Earliest activities in biological control in Latin America and the Caribbean
	1.5 Finding, Evaluation and Utilization of Biological Control Agents
	1.6 Regulations Concerning the Use of Biological Control Agents
	1.7 Structure of the Book
	References
2 Biological Control in Argentina
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 History of Biological Control in Argentina
		2.2.1 Period 1900–1969
		2.2.2 Period 1970–2000
			Biological control of agricultural pests
			Biological control of weeds
	2.3 Current Situation of Biological Control in Argentina
		2.3.1 Introduction
		2.3.2 Classical biological control
			Biological control of agricultural pests
			Biological control of weeds
		2.3.3 Augmentative biological control
			Augmentative biological control with invertebrates
			Augmentative biological control with microbial agents
		2.3.4 Conservation biological control of agricultural pests
	2.4 Conclusions and New Developments of Biological Control in Argentina
	2.5 Acknowledgements
	References
3 Biological Control in Barbados
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 History of Biological Control in Barbados
		3.2.1 Period 1830–1969
			Biological control of pests in sugarcane
			Biological control of pests in citrus
			Biological control of pests in coconut palm
			Biological control of pink bollworm in cotton
			Biological control of armyworms on vegetables and field crops
			Biological control of green scale and whitefly on fruit and ornamental trees
			Biological control of house and stable flies
			Biological control of love vine weeds
			Barbados as provider of natural enemies
		3.2.2 Period 1970–2000
			Biological control of pests in sugarcane
			Biological control of pests in citrus
			Biological control of coconut whitefly
			Biological control of pink bollworm in cotton
			Biological control of pests in vegetables and other field crops
				armyworms
				locusts and grasshoppers
				thrips
				tomato flower midge
				agromyzid leaf miners
				pigeon peas pod borers
				sweet potato leaf roller
			Biological control of pests on fruit and ornamental trees
			Biological control of pests of cruciferous crops
			Biological control of nutgrass weed
			Barbados as provider of natural enemies
	3.3 Current Situation of Biological Control in Barbados
		3.3.1 Classical biological control of pink hibiscus mealybug
		3.3.2 Natural biological control of the papaya mealybug
		3.3.3 Classical biological control of the sago palm scale
		3.3.4 Classical biological control of the citrus leaf miner
		3.3.5 Classical biological control of Asian citrus psyllid
		3.3.6 Natural biological control of the chilli thrips
		3.3.7 Natural biological control of the red palm mite
		3.3.8 Natural enemies of cotton pests
		3.3.9 Areas under biological control in Barbados
	3.4 New Developments of Biological Control in Barbados
	3.5 Acknowledgements
	References
4 Biological Control in Belize
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 History of Biological Control in Belize
		4.2.1 Period 1880–1969
			Classical biological control of fruit flies
			Natural biological control of West Indian cane fly
		4.2.2 Period 1970–2000
			Classical biological control of diamondback moth
			Classical biological control of the mahogany shoot borer
	4.3 Current Situation of Biological Control in Belize
		4.3.1 Classical biological control of the pink hibiscus mealybug
		4.3.2 Classical biological control of the Asian citrus psyllid
	4.4 New Developments of Biological Control in Belize
		4.4.1 Classical biological control of the pink hibiscus mealybug
		4.4.2 Classical biological control of the Asian citrus psyllid
		4.4.3 Augmentative biological control of the sugarcane froghopper
	4.5 Acknowledgements
	References
5 Biological Control in Bolivia
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 History of Biological Control in Bolivia
		5.2.1 Period 1880–1969
			Biological control of pests in sugarcane
			Various other early biological control projects
		5.2.2 Period 1970–2000
			Biological control of pests in sugarcane
			Biological control of potato moths
			Biological control of fruit flies in citrus
			Biological control of coffee berry borer
			Biological control in cotton
			Biological control of the large kissing bug, the vector of Chagas disease
	5.3 Current Situation of Biological Control in Bolivia
		5.3.1 Development of microbiological control agents and bioinsecticides
		5.3.2 Control of pests in the Altiplano and Valles Interandinos
			Microbial control of potato weevils and potato tuber moth
			Natural biological control of lepidopteran pests in quinoa
		5.3.3 Control of pests in the Valles Meso térmicos and Cálidos del Oriente
			Natural, augmentative and classical biological control of sugarcane pests
			Natural and augmentative biological control of soybean pests
		5.3.4 Areas under biological control in Bolivia
	5.4 New Developments of Biological Control in Bolivia
	5.5 Acknowledgements
	References
6 Biological Control in Brazil
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 History of Biological Control in Brazil
		6.2.1 Period 1880–1969
			Classical and augmentative biological control of white peach scale, rhodesgrass scale and sugarcane borer
			Augmentative biological control of pests and diseases with microbial control agents
		6.2.2 Period 1970–2000
			Classical biological control of arthropods in agriculture and forestry
			Augmentative biological control of arthropods by macrobial control agents in agriculture and forestry
			Augmentative biological control of ­arthropods by microbial control agents in agriculture and forestry
			Biological control of plant diseases
			Biological control of weeds
	6.3 Current Situation of Biological Control in Brazil
		6.3.1 Classical and augmentative biological control of forest pests
		6.3.2 Classical and augmentative biological control of arthropods by macrobial control agents in agriculture
		6.3.3 Augmentative biological control of invertebrates by microbial control agents in agriculture and forestry
			Fungal-based products
			Baculovirus-based products
			Nematode-based products
			Bacterial-based products
		6.3.4 Augmentative biological control of plant diseases
		6.3.5 Biological control of weeds
		6.3.6 Mass production and registration of natural enemies and microbial control agents
			Arthropods
			Entomopathogenic nematodes
			Entomopathogenic fungi
			Fungi and bacteria for plant disease control
			Entomopathogenic viruses
			Bacterial-based products
			Registration and the biocontrol market
		6.3.7 Area under biological control in Brazil
	6.4 New Developments of Biological Control in Brazil
	6.5 Acknowledgements
	References
7 Biological Control in Chile
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 History of Biological Control in Chile
		7.2.1 Period 1880–1969
			Biological control of agricultural pests with arthropod natural enemies
			Microbial control of agricultural and forest pests
			Biological control of weeds
		7.2.2 Period 1970–2000
			Biological control of agricultural pests with arthropod natural enemies
			Microbial control of agricultural pests
			Biological control of forest pests
			Weed control with arthropod natural enemies and microbial agents
			Biological control of diseases
	7.3 Current Situation of Biological Control in Chile
		7.3.1 Introduction
		7.3.2 Use of predators and parasitoids
		7.3.3 Use of microbial agents to control pests and diseases
			Entomopathogenic fungi
			Entomopathogenic nematodes
			Bacteria for control of insects, nematodes and diseases
			Fungi and bacteria for control of diseases
			Areas under biological control in Chile
	7.4 New Developments of Biological Control in Chile
	References
8 Biological Control in Colombia
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 History of Biological Control in Colombia
		8.2.1 Period 1880–1969
			Classical biological control of woolly apple aphid and cottony cushion scale
			Microbial control of locusts
		8.2.2 Period 1970–2000
			Augmentative biological control of pests in open field crops
			Augmentative biological control of pests in forestry
			Augmentative biological control of pests in greenhouse vegetables and ornamentals
			Augmentative biological control of pests in sugarcane
			Classical and augmentative biological control of coffee berry borer in coffee
			Use of microbial control agents
			Use of macrobial control agents
	8.3 Current Situation of Biological Control in Colombia
		8.3.1 Natural biological control of pests in cassava
		8.3.2 Classical biological control of the Colombian fluted scale
		8.3.3 Conservation biological control of pests in sugarcane, chilli pepper, oil palm, coffee and ornamentals
		8.3.4 Augmentative biological control
			Pests in cassava
			Pests in citrus
			Coffee berry borer and red mite in coffee
			Pests in cotton, sorghum and maize
			Pine woolly aphid and hornworm in forestry
			Pests in greenhouse vegetables and ornamentals
			Pests in oil palm
			Pests in potato
			Pests in sugarcane
			Sugarcane borer in rice
			Pests in various other crops
			Flies in oil palm, poultry and livestock
			Control of vectors of human diseases
			Use of microbial control agents
			Use of macrobial control agents
	8.4 Biological Control Hotspots in Colombia
	8.5 New Developments of Biological Control in Colombia
	8.6 Acknowledgements
	References
9 Biological Control in Costa Rica
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 History of Biological Control in Costa Rica
		9.2.1 Period 1880–1969
			Pests in coffee
			Mediterranean fruit fly in citrus
			Sugarcane borers in sugarcane
		9.2.2 Period 1970–2000
			Pests in avocado and pineapple
			Spiralling whitefly in banana
			Fruit flies in citrus
			Pests in coffee
			Lepidopterans in cotton
			Macadamia nut borer in macadamia (cashew)
			Cycad aulacaspis in ornamentals
			Pests in oil palm
			Stemborers and spittlebugs in sugarcane
			Shootborers in timber trees
			Pests in vegetables
			White grubs in various crops
	9.3 Current Situation of Biological Control in Costa Rica
		9.3.1 Introduction
		9.3.2 Overview of crops with biological control activities
			Pests in banana
			Pests in citrus
			Coffee berry borer in coffee
			Fruit flies in guava
			False codling moth in macadamia (cashew)
			Oil palm defoliator in palm plantations
			Aphids in sugarcane
			Pests in various crops
	9.4 New Developments of Biological Control in Costa Rica
	9.5 Acknowledgements
	References
10 Biological Control in Cuba
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 History of Biological Control in Cuba
		10.2.1 Period 1880–1969
		10.2.2 Period 1970–2000
	10.3 Current Situation of Biological Control in Cuba
		10.3.1 Introduction
		10.3.2 Biological control agents used in Cuba
			Parasitoids
			Predators
			Entomopathogenic nematodes
			Entomopathogenic fungi
			Microorganisms for the control of nematodes
			Bacteria-based pesticides
			Antagonists for control of plant diseases
		10.3.3 Adoption of biological control in agricultural production
	10.4 New Developments of Biological Control in Cuba
		10.4.1 Introduction
		10.4.2 Conservation biological control
		10.4.3 Technologies for in-field arthropod rearing and survival
		10.4.4 Technologies for production of microbial control agents
		10.4.5 Registration of microbial control agents
		10.4.6 Final considerations
	10.5 Acknowledgements
	References
11 Biological Control in Dominica
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 History of Biological Control in Dominica
		11.2.1 Period 1880–1969
			Fruit flies
			Banana weevil
			Coffee leaf miner
			Diamondback moth
			Sugarcane moth borers
			Armyworms
			Dominica as provider of natural enemies
		11.2.2 Period 1970–2000
			Citrus blackfly
			Dominica as provider of natural enemies
	11.3 Current Situation of Biological Control in Dominica
	11.4 New Developments of Biological Control in Dominica
	References
12 Biological Control in the Dominican Republic
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 History of Biological Control in the Dominican Republic
		12.2.1 Period 1880–1969
			Natural biological control: fungi attacking weeds
			Classical biological control of coconut scale and cottony cushion scale
			Introduction of vertebrates for classical biocontrol of rats and insects
		12.2.2 Period 1970–2000
			Natural, classical and augmentative biological control of citrus pests
				citrus root weevil
				black citrus aphid
				brown citrus aphid
				cloudy-winged whitefly
				citrus leaf miner
				citrus blackfly
			Biological control of whiteflies and other pests in tomato and aubergine
			Biological control of the coffee berry borer
			Biological control of rice stalk stink bug
			Biological control of weeds
			Biological control of bilharzia-transmitting snails
			Rearing and augmentative releases of natural enemies for control of various pests
			IPM of arthropod pests with biocontrol measures
	12.3 Current Situation of Biological Control in the Dominican Republic
		12.3.1 Natural, classical and augmentative biological control of arthropod pests
			Papaya mealybug
			Pink hibiscus mealybug
			Anastrepha fruit flies
			Diamondback moth
			Pigeon pea pod fly
			Red palm mite
			Various other pest mites
			Pests of oriental vegetables
			Pests in organic production of fruit and coffee
			Use of exotic natural enemies
			Natural control of recently introduced exotic pests
			Use of native Anthocoridae
			Inventory of native predatory mites
			Natural enemies and the effect of pesticides
		12.3.2 Augmentative microbial control of arthropod pests
			Sweet potato weevil
			Banana weevils and orchid thrips in banana
			Asian citrus psyllid
	12.4 New Developments of Biological Control in the Dominican Republic
	12.5 Acknowledgements
	References
13 Biological Control in Continental Ecuador and the Galapagos Islands
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 History of Biological Control in Ecuador
		13.2.1 Period 1880–1969
		13.2.2 Period 1970–2000
	13.3 Current Situation of Biocontrol in Ecuador
		13.3.1 Banana
		13.3.2 Broccoli
		13.3.3 Cacao
		13.3.4 Coffee
		13.3.5 Oil palm
		13.3.6 Papaya
		13.3.7 Pineapple
		13.3.8 Rice
		13.3.9 Roses, Flowers
		13.3.10 Sugarcane
		13.3.11 Vegetables
		13.3.12 Governmental and non-governmental research on biological control in Ecuador
			Biological control of pests in potatoes and other crops
			Formulation of a baculovirus for potato moth control
			Improvement of formulations for microorganisms
			Identification of natural enemies of pests in citrus, banana and cacao in the coastal region
			Biological control of fruit flies and scale insects of tropical fruit
		Companies producing biological control agents
		13.3.13 Governmental programmes for production of biological control agents
		13.3.14 Legislation
		13.3.15 Area under augmentative biological control in Ecuador
	13.4 Current Situation on the Galapagos Islands
	13.5 New Developments of Biological Control in Ecuador and on the Galapagos Islands
		13.5.1 Continental Ecuador
		13.5.2 Galapagos Islands
			Classical biological control to manage invasive species in natural ecosystems
			Augmentative biological control of agricultural pests
	13.6 Acknowledgements
	References
14 Biological Control in El Salvador
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 History of Biological Control in El Salvador
		14.2.1 Period 1880–1969
			Natural control of native pests
		14.2.2 Period 1970–2000
			Classical biological control of citrus pests
			Natural and classical biological control of pests in cotton, maize and bean
			Augmentative biological control of lepidopteran pests
			Augmentative biological control of mosquitoes
			Classical biological control of weeds
			Nematophagous fungi present in El Salvador
	14.3 Current Situation of Biological Control in El Salvador
		14.3.1 Microbial control of pests and diseases
		14.3.2 Biological control of mosquitoes
	References
15 Biological Control in French Guiana, Guadeloupe and Martinique
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 History of Biological Control in French Guiana, Guadeloupe and Martinique
		15.2.1 Period 1800–1969
			Use of giant toad
			Use of introduced parasitoids against sugarcane borers in Martinique and
		15.2.2 Period 1970–2000
			Classical biological control of the pink hibiscus mealybug in Martinique and Guadeloupe
			Classical biological control of the Asian citrus psyllid in Martinique and Guadeloupe
			Classical biological control of the citrus blackfly in French Guiana
			Classical biological control of the carambola fruit fly in French Guiana
			French Guiana, Guadeloupe and Martinique as providers of natural enemies
	15.3 Current Situation of Biological Control in French Guiana,
		15.3.1 Introduction
		15.3.2 Augmentative biological control
		15.3.3 Conservation biological control
	15.4 Conclusions
	15.5 New Developments of Biological Control in French Guiana,Guadeloupe and Martinique
		15.5.1 Augmentative biological control with Tamarixia radiata in Guadeloupe
		15.5.2 Classical biological control of the mango mealybug in French Guiana
	15.6 Acknowledgements
	References
16 Biological Control in Guatemala
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 History of Biological Control in Guatemala
	16.3 Current Situation of Biological Control in Guatemala
		16.3.1 Natural and augmentative biological control of pests in coffee
		16.3.2 Augmentative biological control of spittlebugs in grasslands
		16.3.3 Classical biological control of the Mediterranean fruit fly
		16.3.4 Classical biological control of Asian citrus psyllid
		16.3.5 Augmentative biological control of malaria vectors
		16.3.6 Areas under biological control in Guatemala
	16.4 New Developments of Biological Control in Guatemala
	References
17 Biological Control in Guyana
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 History of Biological Control in Guyana
		17.2.1 Period 1875–1969
			Conservation biological control of lepidopterans in rice
			Classical biological control of sugarcane borer with the Amazon fly
			Guyana as provider of natural enemies
		17.2.2 Period 1970–2000
			Biological control of pests of coconut and oil palms
			Biological control of sugarcane borers
			Classical biological control of the pink hibiscus mealybug
	17.3 Current situation of biological control in Guyana
		17.3.1 Biological control of the carambola fruit fly
		17.3.2 Augmentative biological control of red palm mite
		17.3.3 Conservation biological control of pests in rice
	17.4 New Developments of Biological Control in Guyana
	References
18 Biological Control in Haiti
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 History of Biological Control in Haiti
		18.2.1 Period 1880–1969
			Classical biological control of the citrus blackfly
			Classical biological control of the sugarcane borer
		18.2.2 Period 1970–2000
			Classical biological control of the coffee berry borer
	18.3 Current Situation of Biological Control in Haiti
		18.3.1 Classical biological control of the pink hibiscus mealybug
	18.4 New Developments of Biological Control in Haiti
		18.4.1 Classical biological control of the fluted scale
	Acknowledgement
	References
19 Biological Control in Honduras
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 History of Biological Control in Honduras
		19.2.1 Period 1880–1969
		19.2.2 Period 1970–2000
			Center for Biological Control in Central America
			Inventory of natural enemies of pests
			Introduction of natural enemies for classical biological control of aquatic weeds
			Introduction of natural enemies for classical and augmentative biological control of insect pests
			Microbial control of diamondback moth
			Cultural measures to improve natural enemy effectiveness
			Training of teaching and research in biological control
	19.3 Current Situation of Biological Control in Honduras
		19.3.1 Development and production of microbial control agents
		19.3.2 Development and use of invertebrate natural enemies for pest control
		19.3.3 Research and training
	19.4 New Developments of Biological Control in Honduras
	19.5 Acknowledgements
	References
20 Biological Control in Jamaica
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 History of Biological Control in Jamaica
		20.2.1 Period 1870–1969
			Classical biological control of rats
			Classical biological control of citrus pests: citrus blackfly, citrus red scale, cottony cushion scale and citrus weevils
				citrus red scale
				cottony cushion scale
				citrus weevils
			Classical biological control of sugarcane moth borers
			Classical biological control of banana weevil
			Classical biological control of cocoa thrips
			Natural and classical biological control of coconut scale and two aphid species
			Classical biological control of pineapple mealybug
			Classical biological control of various scales on trees and ornamentals
			Classical biological control of puncture vine
			Jamaica as provider of biological control agents
		20.2.2 Period 1970–2000
			Classical biological control of fruit flies
			Classical biological control of the sugarcane borer
			Augmentative biocontrol of the sweet potato weevil
			Natural and classical biological control of pests of cruciferous crops: diamondback moth and cabbage looper
				diamondback moth
				cabbage looper
			Natural and classical biological control of pine mite
			Natural biological control of whiteflies
			Natural and augmentative biological control of citrus root weevils
			Natural biological control of coffee leaf miner
			Augmentative biological control of coffee berry borer
	20.3 Current Situation of Biological Control in Jamaica
		20.3.1 Natural and classical biological control of the brown citrus aphid
			distribution of brown citrus aphid parasitoids,including lipolexis oregmae (gahan), in jamaica
			importation and laboratory rearing of lipolexis oregmae
			field releases of l. oregmae
		20.3.2 Natural biological control of susumba beetle or false Colorado potato beetle
		20.3.3 Natural biological control of ensign scale
		20.3.4 Natural biological control of lime swallowtail butterfly
		20.3.5 Classical biological control of the pink hibiscus mealybug
		20.3.6 Natural biological control of red palm mite
		20.3.7 Natural and augmentative biological control of the citrus root weevil
		20.3.8 Natural and fortuitous biological control of the papaya mealybug
		20.3.9 Fortuitous and augmentative biological control of Asian citrus psyllid
		20.3.10 Augmentative biological control of the coffee berry borer
		20.3.11 Augmentative biological control of the sweet potato weevil
		20.3.12 Augmentative biological control of beet armyworm
	20.4 New Developments of Biological Control in Jamaica
	20.5 Acknowledgements
	References
21 Biological Control in Mexico
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 History of Biological Control in Mexico
		21.2.1 Period 1900–1969
		21.2.2 Period 1970–2000
			Classical biological control of pests and weeds
			Augmentative biological control of pests
	21.3 Current Situation of Biological Control in Mexico
		21.3.1 Overview of classical and
		21.3.2 Major recent cases of biological control
			Pink hibiscus mealybug
			Asian citrus psyllid
			Vine mealybug
			Brown citrus aphid
			Acrididae locusts
			Soybean caterpillar
			Red gum lerp psyllid
			Spittlebugs
			Fruit flies
			Various other biological control programmes
		21.3.3 Biological control in protected agriculture
		21.3.4 Mass production of biological control agents
	21.4 New Developments in Biological Control in Mexico
		21.4.1 Pest risk scenarios
		21.4.2 Biological control of new pests and diseases identified by risk scenarios
		21.4.3 Mexican legislation for biological control of agricultural pests
		21.4.4 The future of biological control in Mexico
	21.5 Acknowledgements
	References
22 Biological Control in Nicaragua
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 History of Biological Control in Nicaragua
		22.2.1 Period 1870–1969
		22.2.2 Period 1970–2000
	22.3 Current Situation of Biological Control in Nicaragua
	22.4 New Developments of Biological Control in Nicaragua
	22.5 Acknowledgements
	References
23 Biological Control in Panama
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 History of Biological Control in Panama
		23.2.1 Period 1880–1969
		23.2.2 Period 1970 –2000
	23.3 Current Biological Control Situation in Panama
	23.4 New Biological Control Developments in Panama
	23.5 Acknowledgement
	References
24 Biological Control in Paraguay
	24.1 Introduction
	24.2 History of Biological Control in Paraguay
		24.2.1 Period 1970–2000
	24.3 Current Situation of Biocontrol in Paraguay
		24.3.1 Introduction
		24.3.2 Sampling for and identification of natural enemies of pests in different crops
		24.3.3 Use of microbial control agents in biological control of pests
		24.3.4 Use of antagonistic fungi and bacteria in the biological control and management of plant diseases
	24.4 Future of Biological Control in Paraguay
	References
25 Biological Control in Peru
	25.1 Introduction
	25.2 History of Biological Control in Peru
		25.2.1 Period 1880–1969
		25.2.2 Period 1970–2000
	25.3 Current Situation of Biological Control in Peru
		25.3.1 Augmentative biological control
			Production at the Central Laboratory of the SCB
			Promotion and use of biological control agents
			Production of biological control agents in the network of regional laboratories in agreement with SENASA
	25.4 New Developments of Biological Control in Peru
		25.4.1 The role of SENASA in the promotion of biological control
			Green Farm certification
			Agreement with the association of citrus farmers (SENASA-PROCITRUS)
			Project with the Peruvian Asparagus Institute (SENASA-IPE)
			Plan Quinoa
		25.4.2 Biological control as the basis for large-scale sustainable agriculture
		25.4.3 Concluding remarks
	25.5 Acknowledgements
	References
26 Biological Control in Puerto Rico
	26.1 Introduction
	26.2 History of Biological Control in Puerto Rico
		26.2.1 Period 1800–1969
			Naturalists stress the importance of predators and parasitoids
			Natural and classical biological control of pests in sugarcane
			Classical biological control of pests in citrus and coffee
		26.2.2 Period 1970–2000
			Classical biological control of weeds
			Natural and classical biological control of sugarcane rootstalk weevil
			Natural and classical biological control of the melon worm in cucurbits
			Natural, fortuitous and classical biological control of citrus blackfly and black citrus aphids in citrus
			Natural and classical biological control of pink hibiscus mealybug and the papaya mealybug
			Natural and classical biological control of various other pests
			Classical biological control of invasive aquatic weeds
			Conservation biological control of pests in coffee plantations
	26.3 Current Situation of Biological Control in Puerto Rico
		26.3.1 Fortuitous biological control of Asian citrus psyllid
		26.3.2 Biological control of the Harrisia cactus mealybug
		26.3.3 Natural, augmentative and conservation biological control of the coffee berry borer
		26.3.4 Establishment of Center for Excellence in Quarantine and Invasive Species
	26.4 New Developments in Biological Control in Puerto Rico
	26.5 Acknowledgements
	References
27 Biological Control in the Remaining Caribbean Islands
	27.1 Introduction
	27.2 History of Biological Control in the Remaining Caribbean Islands
		27.2.1 Biological control of pests of citrus
			Citrus blackfly
			Various whitefly species
			Citrus mealybug
			Citrus weevils
			Fruit flies
		27.2.2 Biological control of pests of coconuts
			Coconut whitefly
			Coconut mealybug
			Coconut scale
		27.2.3 Biological control of pests of other tree crops and ornamentals
			Orthezia scales
			Miscellaneous mealybugs
			Miscellaneous scale insects
			Cocoa thrips
			Banana weevil
		27.2.4 Biological control of pests of cotton
			Cotton stainers
			Green stink bug
			Pink bollworm
			Cotton leafworm
		27.2.5 Biological control of pests of cruciferous crops
			Diamondback moth
			Cabbage butterfly
		27.2.6 Biological control of pests of sugarcane
			West Indian cane fly
			Sugarcane froghopper
			Yellow sugarcane aphid
			Sugarcane mealybugs
			White grub larvae of beetles
			Sugarcane borers
		27.2.7 Biological control of pests of other vegetable and field crops
			Phytophagous snails
			Pigeon pea pod borers
			Arrowroot leaf roller
			Armyworms
		27.2.8 Biological control of forestry pests
			Mahogany shoot borer
		27.2.9 Biological control of pests of humans and domestic animals
			House and stable flies
			Mosquitoes vectoring human diseases
		27.2.10 Introduction of vertebrate natural enemies into the Caribbean
			Giant toad
			Small Indian mongoose
		27.2.11 Biological control of weeds
			Prickly pear
			Love vine
			Puncture vine
		27.2.12 Remaining Caribbean islands as source of biological control agents
			Natural enemies of the green stink bug
			Weed biological control agents
		27.2.13 Conclusions about biological control in the Remaining Caribbean islands up to 1980
	27.3 Current Situation of Biological Control in the Remaining Caribbean Islands
		27.3.1 Biological control of pests of citrus
			Citrus leaf miner
		27.3.2 Biological control of pests of coconut
			Coconut whitefly
			Red palm mite
			Coconut scale
		27.3.3 Biological control of pests of other tree crops and ornamentals
			Papaya mealybug
			Pink hibiscus mealybug
			Passion vine mealybug
		27.3.4 Biological control of pests of cotton
			Whiteflies
		27.3.5 Biological control of pests of cruciferous crops
			Diamondback moth
		27.3.6 Biological control of pests of sweet potato
			Sweet potato weevils
		27.3.7 Biological control of pests of other vegetable and field crops
			Phytophagous mites
		27.3.8 Biological control of pests of humans and domestic animals
			Mosquitoes vectoring human diseases
			Fire ants
	27.4 New Developments of Biological Control in the Remaining Caribbean Islands
		27.4.1 The effect of regulations on implementation of biological control in the Caribbean
		27.4.2 Implementation of Farmers Field Schools in the Caribbean region
		27.4.3 Final remarks
	References
28 Biological Control in Suriname
	28.1 Introduction
	28.2 History of Biological Control in Suriname
		28.2.1 Period 1880 –1969
			Natural control of hawk moth in tomato and pepper
			Natural control of palm caterpillar in coconut palm
			Prospecting for natural enemies in sugarcane
			Native predators of cocoa thrips in cocoa
			Native parasitoid of the paddy bug in rice
			Native parasitoid of the guava fruit fly
		28.2.2 Period 1970–2000
			Natural control of citrus pests
			Augmentative biological control attempts of the coconut stem borer with nematodes
			Natural control of the coconut caterpillar in coconut
			Natural control of the green cassava mite in cassava
			Natural control of Pomacea snails in rice
			Native parasitoids of the rice stem borer in rice
	28.3 Current Situation of Biological Control in Suriname
		28.3.1 Classical biological control of the pink hibiscus mealybug
		28.3.2 Native natural enemies of Bemisia whiteflies
		28.3.3 IPM of the carambola fruit fly
		28.3.4 Natural control of pineapple pests
	28.4 New Developments of Biological Control in Suriname
		28.4.1 Biological control of carambola fruit fly
		28.4.2 Prospecting for native natural enemies of aphids
	28.5 Acknowledgements
	28.6 References
29 Biological Control in Trinidad and Tobago
	29.1 Introduction
	29.2 History of Biological Control in Trinidad and Tobago
		29.2.1 Period 1870–1969
		29.2.2 Period 1970–2000
			Sugarcane moth borer
			Diamondback moth
			Sugarcane froghopper
	29.3 Current Situation of Biological Control in Trinidad and Tobago
		29.3.1 Current biological control projects in Trinidad and Tobago
			Citrus blackfly
			Diamondback moth
			Pink hibiscus mealybug
		29.3.2 Trinidad as a source of natural enemies for biological control
	29.4 New Developments of Biological Control in Trinidad and Tobago
	References
30 Biological Control in Uruguay
	30.1 Introduction
	30.2 History of Biological Control in Uruguay
		30.2.1 Period 1880–1969
		30.2.2 Period 1970–2000
			Characterization of natural enemy complexes
			Augmentative biological control
	30.3 Current Situation of Biological Control in Uruguay
		30.3.1 Characterization of natural enemy complexes
		30.3.2 Classical biological control
		30.3.3 Augmentative biological control
	30.4 New Developments of Biological Control in Uruguay
	References
31 Biological Control in Venezuela
	31.1 Introduction
	31.2 History of Biological Control in Venezuela
		31.2.1 Period 1880–1969
		31.2.2 Period 1970–2000
	31.3 Current Situation of Biological Control in Venezuela
		31.3.1 Perception of biological control by farmers
		31.3.2 Development of laboratories for mass production of biological control agents
		31.3.3 Research and application of Trichogramma species
		31.3.4 Research and application of Cotesia flavipes and Lydella minense
		31.3.5 Research on coccinellids, syrphids and chrysopids
			Coccinellids
			Syrphids
			Chrysopids
		31.3.6 Research on entomopathogenic nematodes
		31.3.7 Research and application of microbial control agents
	31.4 New Developments of Biological Control in Venezuela
	Acknowledgement
32 The Uptake of Biological Control in Latin America and the Caribbean
	32.1 Introduction
	32.2 Achievements
		32.2.1 Examples of early use of the same natural enemies in many countries in the region
		32.2.2 Recent examples of use of the same natural enemies in the region
		32.2.3 Differences in use of biocontrol in the region
			Classical biological control
			Augmentative biological control
			Conservation biological control
			Natural control
			Biological control of weeds
			Biological control of pests in forests
			Biological control in natural areas
		32.2.4 Developments of particular interest in Latin America and the Caribbean
			Early and continued large-scale prospecting for natural enemies,pathogens and antagonists for pest,disease and weed control
			Early and continued documentation of natural control and use of conservation biocontrol
			Provider of biological control agents
			Governmental support and guidance for development of IPM and biocontrol
			Proactive approach with regard to control of potential invading organisms
			Impressive areas under classical biological control
			Impressive areas under augmentative biological control
		32.2.5 Achievements in areas under biocontrol in Latin America and the Caribbean
	32.3 BIOCAT Data on Classical Biological Control in Latin America and the Caribbean
	32.4 Factors Limiting and Stimulating Biological Controlin Latin America and the Caribbean
		32.4.1 Factors limiting development and implementation of biological control
			Factors stimulating development and implementation of biological control
	32.5 Future of Biological Control in Latin America and the Caribbean
	32.6 Acknowledgements
	References
Index
Back Cover