Biogeochemistry of Inland Waters

Biogeochemistry of Inland Waters......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Editor......Page 6
Contributors......Page 8
Contents......Page 12
Introduction to the Biogeochemistry of Inland Waters......Page 16
References Cited/Further Reading......Page 17
The Structure of Water......Page 18
Solvation by Water......Page 20
Dissolved Gases......Page 23
Nutrients......Page 24
Further Reading......Page 25
Relevant Websites......Page 26
Density......Page 27
Heat Capacity/Specific Heat......Page 28
Heat of Fusion/Melting......Page 29
Isotopes......Page 30
Surface Tension and Cohesiveness......Page 31
Further Reading......Page 32
Hydrostatic Pressure......Page 34
Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Surfaces......Page 37
Buoyancy......Page 39
Dynamic Pressure......Page 40
Pressure in the Equations of Motion......Page 41
Biological Responses......Page 42
Further Reading......Page 43
Relevant Websites......Page 44
Physical Factors......Page 45
Mechanistic Models of Gas Transfer......Page 46
Chemical Factors......Page 47
Chemical Enhancement......Page 48
Bubbles......Page 49
Eddy Correlation Methods......Page 50
Empirical Models of Gas Exchange......Page 51
Conclusion......Page 52
Further Reading......Page 53
Photochemistry of Organic Carbon......Page 54
Heterogeneous Photochemistry......Page 57
Photochemical Reactivity of Organic Matter......Page 58
Regulators of the Photochemical Reactivity of Organic Matter......Page 59
Predicting the Rates of Photoreactions in the Environment......Page 60
Responses of Food Webs to the Photochemical Transformation of Organic Matter......Page 62
Contribution of Photochemistry to the Biogeochemistry of Organic Matter......Page 64
Further Reading......Page 65
Hydrological Cycle......Page 68
Ground water......Page 70
Nutrient Cycling and Energy Balance......Page 71
Evapotranspiration......Page 72
Groundwater runoff......Page 73
Further Reading......Page 74
Introduction......Page 75
Water Vapor in the Atmosphere......Page 76
From Cloud Particles to Precipitation......Page 77
Radar......Page 78
Satellite Remote Sensing......Page 79
Scale-Invariant Statistical Models......Page 81
Glossary......Page 83
Relevant Websites......Page 84
Relevant Websites......Page 85
Evaporation and the Projected Acceleration in the Global Hydrologic Cycle......Page 86
Evapotranspiration and the Continental-Scale Hydrologic Cycle......Page 87
Evapotranspiration at Local Scales: Knowledge Gaps and Why the Problem of its Quantification Persists......Page 90
Further Reading......Page 92
Water pressure and energy......Page 93
Water retention......Page 94
Examples......Page 95
Diffuse Unsaturated Flow......Page 96
Measurement or estimation of unsaturated K......Page 97
Types of preferential flow......Page 98
Quantification of preferential flow......Page 99
Moisture State in the Vadose Zone......Page 100
Evapotranspiration......Page 101
Redistribution of infiltrated water......Page 102
Conclusion......Page 103
Further Reading......Page 104
Aquifer Basics......Page 105
Groundwater Flow Systems......Page 106
Groundwater Budgets......Page 107
Effects of Climate on Groundwater Budgets......Page 108
Groundwater Data and Models......Page 109
Further Reading......Page 110
Relevant Websites......Page 111
Measuring GW-SW Interaction: Methods and Approaches......Page 112
Use of Darcy\'s Law......Page 113
Mass-Balance Approaches......Page 114
Streams......Page 116
The Hyporheic Zone and Transient Storage Modeling......Page 117
Rivers and Floodplains......Page 118
Lakes and Wetlands......Page 120
Agricultural Development......Page 121
Further Reading......Page 122
Relevant Websites......Page 123
Chemical Composition Changes along Groundwater Flow Paths......Page 124
Chemical Composition Changes in Ground Water due to Human Activity......Page 128
The Relation of Chemical Characteristics of Ground Water to Chemical Characteristics of Surface Water......Page 133
Relevant Websites......Page 134
River Data Bases......Page 135
Flux Determination from Discrete Sampling......Page 136
Particulate Fluxes and TSS Levels......Page 137
Major World Rivers and Their Ranked Fluxes......Page 141
Nutrients in World Rivers: From Natural to Contemporary Loads......Page 144
Trajectories of Riverine Fluxes Reflect Pressures Evolution and Water Quality Management......Page 145
Further Reading......Page 146
Relevant Websites......Page 147
Equilibrium Transport of Sediment Suspensions......Page 148
Nonequilibrium Transport of Sediment Suspensions......Page 149
Further Reading......Page 150
Spatial Organization of Streams in Drainage Networks......Page 151
Sources of Flow in Streams......Page 152
Movement of Water into Stream Channels......Page 153
Movement of Sediment into Stream Channels......Page 155
Characteristics of Flow in Streams......Page 156
Glossary......Page 158
Relevant Websites......Page 159
Water Sources and Discharge......Page 160
Flooding......Page 161
Water Movement......Page 162
Geomorphology......Page 163
Water Regulation......Page 164
Dissolved Substances......Page 165
Dissolved Gases......Page 166
Primary Producers......Page 167
Invertebrates......Page 168
River Food Webs......Page 169
Global Biogeochemical Cycling......Page 170
Further Reading......Page 171
Kinds of Springs......Page 172
Nonthermal Springs......Page 174
Thermal Springs......Page 182
Geological Importance......Page 184
Scientific Importance......Page 185
Cultural and Societal Importance......Page 189
Conservation of Springs......Page 190
Glossary......Page 191
Relevant Websites......Page 192
Factors Contributing to Wetland Hydrology......Page 194
Frequency of Prolonged Wetness......Page 196
Does Prolonged Saturation Guarantee Anaerobic and Reducing Conditions?......Page 197
Hydrographs for Different Wetland Types......Page 198
Water Budget......Page 199
Inputs......Page 200
Wetland Hydrology Indicators......Page 202
Glossary......Page 204
Relevant Websites......Page 205
Water Movements - The Concept of Scale......Page 206
Small-Scale Turbulence......Page 207
Physical Influences on the Size and Structure of Organisms......Page 208
Mixed Layer Depth and the Maintenance of Non-motile Plankton......Page 209
Nutrient Fluxes at the Microscale......Page 210
Further Reading......Page 212
Circulation Patterns......Page 213
Temperature Stratification......Page 214
Thermobaric Stratification......Page 215
Salinity Stratification......Page 216
Processes Forming Gradients of Dissolved Substances......Page 217
Nomenclature......Page 218
Stability......Page 219
Differential Quantities......Page 220
Bulk Quantities......Page 221
Further Reading......Page 222
Relevant Websites......Page 223
Basic Ideas of Turbulence (refer \'see also\' section)......Page 224
Winds on Lakes......Page 225
Surface Energy Exchanges......Page 228
Mixing and Turbulence Energetics......Page 230
Upwelling......Page 233
Synthesis......Page 234
Further Reading......Page 238
Density Stratification and Mixing - the Small Scale......Page 239
Turbulence Production in the Surface and Bottom Boundaries......Page 242
Internal Waves and Turbulence in the Stratified Interior......Page 244
Turbulent Energy Flux through the Water Column - Synthesis......Page 245
Further Reading......Page 246
The Turbulent BBL......Page 247
Effects of Bottom Roughness......Page 249
2-Dimensional Mixing Processes in Enclosed Basins......Page 250
The Diffusive Sublayer......Page 251
Effects of Small-Scale Sediment Topography......Page 253
Particle Dynamics......Page 254
Further Reading......Page 255
Controlling Factors and Classifications of Currents......Page 256
Currents in Fluvial Channels......Page 257
Secondary Currents......Page 258
Structure of Currents at River Confluences......Page 259
Currents at Engineering Structures......Page 260
Navigation-Induced Currents......Page 261
Nomenclature......Page 262
Relevant Websites......Page 263
Characteristics of Density Currents......Page 264
River Inflows......Page 266
Interbasin Exchange......Page 267
Thermal Bar......Page 268
Thermal Baricity......Page 270
Impact of Changes in the Environmental Conditions on Density Currents and Deep-Water Renewal......Page 271
Further Reading......Page 272
Wind Set-Up of the Free Surface......Page 273
Wind Set-Up of the Internal Stratification......Page 274
Wedderburn and Lake Numbers......Page 276
Horizontal modes......Page 277
Vertical modes......Page 279
Internal Modes in a Continuous Stratification......Page 280
Degeneration of Basin-Scale Internal Waves in Lakes......Page 281
Regime 4: Kelvin-Helmholtz Billows......Page 282
Regime 2: Solitary Waves......Page 284
Shoaling of Nonlinear Internal Waves......Page 285
Progressive Internal Wave Rays in a Continuous Stratification......Page 286
Analysis of Timeseries Data......Page 288
Summary......Page 291
Further Reading......Page 292
Introduction......Page 294
Gravity Waves......Page 295
Current Structure and Measurement......Page 299
Vorticity Waves......Page 300
Nomenclature......Page 301
Further Reading......Page 302
Introduction......Page 303
Lateral and Vertical Circulations......Page 304
Wind Setup......Page 305
Topographic Gyres in Homogenous Basins......Page 306
Topographic Waves in Homogenous Bodies......Page 307
Spatial Variability of Wind Forcing......Page 309
Vertical Circulation......Page 310
Circulation Patterns in Natural Systems (Lakes and Reservoirs)......Page 314
Further Reading......Page 316
Lakes......Page 318
Nontidal Wetlands......Page 323
Rivers......Page 324
Nomenclature......Page 327
Relevant Websites......Page 329
Distribution of Flow in and above the Vegetation......Page 330
Turbulence Structure with Submerged Canopies......Page 332
Canopy Water Renewal......Page 333
Summary......Page 335
Further Reading......Page 336
Dimensionality and Capabilities......Page 337
Boundary and Initial Conditions......Page 339
Overview......Page 341
Horizontal Grid Systems......Page 344
Vertical Grid Systems......Page 346
Numerical Methods......Page 347
Modeling Turbulence and Mixing......Page 348
Summary and Future Directions......Page 349
Further Reading......Page 351
Introduction......Page 352
Transport......Page 354
Oxic Processes......Page 356
Anoxic Processes......Page 357
Glossary......Page 358
Further Reading......Page 359
Dissolved CO2 - A Master Variable......Page 360
Atmospheric Exchange of CO2......Page 361
Regulation of pH by Dissolved CO2......Page 362
Measurement......Page 363
Glossary......Page 364
Measurement......Page 365
Effect of Carbon Dioxide......Page 366
Dissimilatory Redox Reactions......Page 367
Natural Buffering......Page 368
Low Alkalinity Acidic Waters......Page 369
Relevant Websites......Page 370
Sources of Major Cations......Page 371
Biological and Geochemical Sinks for Major Cations......Page 372
Cation Chemistry in Fresh Waters......Page 373
Nomenclature......Page 376
Relevant Websites......Page 377
Natural and Anthropogenic Sources of Chloride to Inland Waters......Page 378
Ecological Implications of Increased Chloride Concentrations......Page 381
Knowledge Gaps......Page 382
Further Reading......Page 383
Relevant Websites......Page 384
Major Chemical Forms in Natural Waters......Page 385
The World\'s Major Rivers......Page 386
Smaller Streams and Rivers......Page 387
Lakes......Page 388
Lakes......Page 390
Fe and Mn Oxides and Trace Metals......Page 391
Waters Receiving Acid Mine Drainage or Acid Rock Drainage......Page 392
Hydrothermally Influenced Water Bodies......Page 393
Further Reading......Page 394
Cobalt......Page 395
Molybdenum......Page 396
Zinc......Page 397
Glossary......Page 398
Glossary......Page 399
Geological Sources......Page 400
Biogeochemistry of Trace Metals in Fresh Waters......Page 401
Aqueous Complexation......Page 402
Oxidation, Reduction, and Speciation......Page 403
Biological Uptake, Accumulation, and Transformation of Metals......Page 404
Example: Mercury......Page 405
MeHg Production......Page 406
Solving the Mercury Problem......Page 407
Relevant Websites......Page 408
Introduction to Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Aquatic Systems......Page 409
Nitrogen Fixation by Planktonic Cyanobacteria in Freshwater Lakes......Page 410
Nitrogen Fixation by Planktonic Cyanobacteria in Saline Waters......Page 413
Conclusions......Page 414
Glossary......Page 415
Glossary......Page 416
Forms and Transformations of Nitrogen......Page 417
Nitrogen Cycling at the Ecosystem Scale......Page 419
Nutrient Limitation of Net Primary Production......Page 420
Human Acceleration of the Nitrogen Cycle......Page 421
Further Reading......Page 423
History of P Research and Basic Chemical Properties of P......Page 425
P Limitation of Production in Inland Waters......Page 426
Global Regional and Landscape Transfers of P......Page 427
P Cycling and Retention in Inland Waters......Page 428
Further Reading......Page 430
Si Cycling at the Ecosystem Scale......Page 431
DSi Limitation......Page 432
Human Influence on Si Cycling......Page 433
Further Reading......Page 434
Salinity......Page 435
Ecological Responses......Page 436
Salt as a Conservative Tracer in Watersheds......Page 437
Dryland Salinity and Salinization of Inland Waters......Page 438
Further Reading......Page 439
Terminology......Page 442
Range of Allelochemical Reactions......Page 443
Fish Kairomones......Page 444
Invertebrate Kairomones......Page 445
Cyanobacterial toxins......Page 446
Herbivore deterrents......Page 448
Allelopathy......Page 449
Algal Pheromones......Page 452
Further Reading......Page 453
Colorimetric Methods......Page 454
Free Monosaccharides......Page 456
Natural Saccharides in Fresh Water......Page 459
Annual Variations in Carbohydrate Pools......Page 460
Daily Variations in Carbohydrate Pools......Page 461
Uptake of Glucose and Fructose......Page 462
Utilization of Polysaccharides Requires Enzymes......Page 464
Enzymatic Activity in a French River Reservoir......Page 466
Application of Stable Isotopes in Ecology......Page 467
Carbohydrates - From Molecule to Trees......Page 468
Further Reading......Page 469
A Simplified Carbon Cycle for Inland Waters......Page 470
Patterns of Organic Matter Oxidation......Page 472
Further Reading......Page 473
Interference within Photosynthetic Oxygen Production......Page 474
Chemical Attraction and Gene Regulation in C elegans......Page 475
Interaction with Membranes......Page 476
Chemical Stress Defense......Page 477
Acquisition of Multiple Stress Resistance......Page 478
Glossary......Page 479
Further Reading......Page 480
The Physical Appearance of Humic Substances in Water......Page 481
Aggregation......Page 483
Brownian Motion (Thermal Effects)......Page 484
The Role of Iron for Aggregation......Page 485
Humic Substances and Hydrophobic Contaminants......Page 486
Further Reading......Page 487
Essential Fatty Acids......Page 488
Important Lipid Groups and Functions......Page 489
Eukaryotic Algae......Page 491
EFA in Freshwater Fish......Page 492
Characteristics of Food for Freshwater Fish......Page 494
Glossary......Page 495
Relevant Websites......Page 496
Biochemical and Microbiological Aspects of Methanogenesis......Page 497
Environmental Factors Affecting Methanogenesis......Page 498
Spatial Distribution of Methanogenesis in Freshwater Environments......Page 499
Spatial Distribution of Aquatic CH4 Oxidation......Page 500
Rates of CH4 Formation and Oxidation......Page 502
Flux Pathways......Page 506
The Contribution of Different Flux Types and their Regulation......Page 510
See also......Page 518
Further Reading......Page 519
Inventories and Fluxes of NOM......Page 520
Solid Phase Extractions of NOM......Page 522
Membrane Isolation of NOM......Page 523
Molecular Weights of NOM......Page 524
Elemental Composition of NOM......Page 525
Redfield Biomass......Page 526
Oxidation State of Organic Carbon......Page 527
Unsaturation......Page 528
Acidic Functional Groups of NOM......Page 529
13C NMR Spectroscopy of NOM......Page 530
Integrated Description of NOM......Page 531
Further Reading......Page 532
DON vs DIN......Page 534
Specific DON Compounds......Page 535
Amino Acids in a Stratified Lake......Page 538
Composition of DCAA......Page 539
Glucosamine and Other Amino Sugars......Page 540
Dissolved RNA and DNA......Page 541
Bacteria......Page 542
Soil......Page 543
Uptake of DFAA by Bacteria......Page 544
Uptake of Other Amino Compounds......Page 548
Uptake of DCAA......Page 549
Uptake of Urea......Page 550
Uptake of Single DON Compounds......Page 551
Uptake of Polymer DON Compounds......Page 552
Relevant Websites......Page 553
Stoichiometric Homeostasis......Page 554
Primary Producers......Page 555
Zooplankton......Page 556
Other Aquatic Invertebrates......Page 557
Fish......Page 558
Food Quality......Page 559
Nutrient Recycling......Page 560
Whole-System Scale......Page 563
Relevant Website......Page 565
Measuring the Redox Potential......Page 566
Stratified Lakes......Page 567
Redox Potential around the Sediment-Water Interface......Page 568
Redox Potential and Nutrient Cycling......Page 569
Redox Potential and Lake Restoration......Page 570
Redox Potential and Wetlands......Page 571
Further Reading......Page 573
Definitions and Dimensions......Page 574
Buffering systems: the weak acids of carbon, aluminum, and iron......Page 575
Atmospheric Deposition and Acid Rain......Page 577
Drainage from Acid Sulfate Soils......Page 580
Biological Effects of Acidification......Page 581
Acid Mine Drainage and Acid Sulfate Soils......Page 582
Glossary......Page 583
Further Reading......Page 584
Relevant Websites......Page 585
Waterborne Disease Associated with Inland Waters......Page 586
Animal feeding operations......Page 588
Septic tank systems......Page 589
Heavy metals......Page 590
Water Quality Standards: Monitoring Fresh Waters......Page 591
Glossary......Page 592
Relevant Websites......Page 593
Choices in Approach to Bioassessment......Page 594
1900-1950......Page 596
1970-2002......Page 597
Biota Used in Bioassessments......Page 598
Examples of Bioassessment Programs - See above in History......Page 599
Further Reading......Page 600
Nutrients in Particulate Form......Page 602
Effects on hydrology......Page 608
Chemical transformations......Page 609
Effects on processes within aquatic ecosystems......Page 610
Other factors contributing to the variable effects of deforestation on nutrient loading......Page 611
Effects on Watershed Topography, Soil Erodibility, Precipitation Characteristics, and Watershed Susceptibility to Mass Wasting......Page 612
Effects on Extent of Roading......Page 613
Conclusions......Page 614
General Effects of Deforestation on Freshwater Nutrient Loading......Page 616
Relevant Websites......Page 617
Effects of Increased Nutrients on Primary Producers......Page 618
Feedbacks between Plants and Algae and Trophic Interactions......Page 620
Acid Rain......Page 621
Complex Interactions - Increased CO2, Acidification and Eutrophication......Page 622
Aquatic Plant Management Activities......Page 623
Chemical Control......Page 624
Further Reading......Page 626
Basin Integrity......Page 628
Ice Cover......Page 629
In-Lake Effects......Page 630
Vertical Habitat Structure......Page 631
Fish Communities and Migration......Page 632
Further Reading......Page 633
Sources of Nutrients to Inland Surface Waters......Page 634
Nutrient Loading Models......Page 637
Effects of inorganic turbidity and dissolved organic color......Page 638
Effects of food web structure......Page 640
Alternative stable states......Page 641
Causes and Composition of Harmful Algal Blooms......Page 642
General Effects of Eutrophication......Page 644
Further Reading......Page 645
Relevant Websites......Page 646
Fire Severity......Page 647
Wildfires as an Ecological Impact on Aquatic Systems......Page 648
Pre-Fire Considerations......Page 649
Weather Patterns......Page 650
Nutrient cycling......Page 651
Infiltration and runoff......Page 652
Biota......Page 653
Long-Term Effects: 10{\\tf=......Page 658
Summary......Page 659
Relevant Websites......Page 660
Causes and Effects of Floods......Page 661
Flood Costs and Mitigation......Page 663
Further Reading......Page 664
Hypolimnetic Enrichment......Page 665
Seasonality......Page 666
Biota......Page 667
Annual Budgets for Total Mercury......Page 669
Seasonal Budgets for Methylmercury......Page 670
Methylation Pathways......Page 671
The Aquatic Mercury Cycle......Page 672
Remediation Strategies......Page 673
Further Reading......Page 674
Identifying Sources of Pollution......Page 675
Point Source Pollution......Page 676
Specific Sources of Aquatic Pollution......Page 677
Oxygen Demand in Aquatic Ecosystems......Page 679
Chemical Oxygen Demand......Page 680
Restoration Techniques to Avoid Low Oxygen......Page 681
Eutrophication, Supply Ratios, and Species Composition......Page 682
Conclusions......Page 683
Relevant Websites......Page 684
Petroleum Hydrocarbon Oils......Page 685
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 686
Polychlorinated Biphenyls......Page 687
Pesticides......Page 688
Chemicals of Emerging Concern......Page 689
Mercury......Page 691
Radionuclides......Page 692
Relevant Websites......Page 693
Human Diseases and Freshwater Vectors......Page 694
Insect Vectors of Human Disease......Page 695
Snails and Crustacenas as Intermediate Hosts of Human Disease......Page 696
Habitats of Human-Disease Vectors......Page 697
Vector Control Strategies......Page 698
Human Culture, Freshwater Vectors and Disease......Page 700
Glossary......Page 701
Further Reading......Page 702
Subject Index......Page 704