Biofuels: Alternative Feedstocks and Conversion Processes

Front Cover......Page 1
Biofuels: Alternative Feedstocks and Conversion Processes......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 8
Contributors......Page 10
Section I: General......Page 14
1. Introduction......Page 16
2. From fossil to biomass raw materials......Page 17
3. Biomass processing in biorefinery......Page 21
4. Lignocellulosic molecular components and their derivatives......Page 22
5. Biorefinery to replace existing fossil bulk chemicals......Page 26
6. Biorefinery to produce alternative products......Page 29
7. Next research outlook......Page 34
References......Page 35
1. Introduction......Page 38
2. The concept of LCA and its application to biofuels......Page 41
3. Methodology and assumptions......Page 46
4. Case study: bioethanol from wheat......Page 51
5. Results......Page 54
6. Conclusions......Page 60
References......Page 61
1. Introduction......Page 64
2. Feedstocks for biofuels......Page 65
3. Composition of lignocellulosic biomass......Page 66
4. Lignocellulosic biomass pretreatment techniques......Page 67
6. Thermochemical conversion......Page 69
8. Typical issues for life-cycle analysis......Page 86
References......Page 88
1. Background......Page 92
2. Fundamental aspects of syngas fermentation......Page 93
3. Microbiology of syngas fermentation......Page 96
4. Syngas characteristics......Page 97
5. Current developments in syngas fermentation......Page 98
6. Factors affecting syngas fermentation......Page 101
8. Challenges and future research directions......Page 107
References......Page 109
Section II: Production of bioethanol from lignocellulosic feedstocks......Page 112
1. Introduction......Page 114
2. First-generation fuel ethanol production: the feedstock and the process and their constraints......Page 118
3. Second-generation ethanol production......Page 120
4. Feasibility of lignocellulosic ethanol production......Page 123
5. Concluding remarks......Page 130
References......Page 132
1. Introduction......Page 136
2. State of the art......Page 137
3. Key drivers of the lignocellulosic ethanol production cost......Page 143
4. Cost management system......Page 153
5. Current economic evaluation of lignocellulosic bioethanol: some limitations......Page 157
References......Page 159
1. Introduction......Page 162
2. Toxic Compounds Generated During Pretreatment......Page 165
3. Pretreatment processes......Page 167
4. Biological pretreatments......Page 179
5. Concluding remarks......Page 180
References......Page 184
Additional Resources......Page 189
1. Introduction......Page 190
2. Cellulase: mode of action......Page 191
3. Cellulase systems and the control of cellulase gene expression......Page 192
5. Pretreatment......Page 194
6. Bioprocesses for cellulase production......Page 196
7. Applications of cellulases......Page 201
8. Cellulase market scenario......Page 205
9. Engineered/artificial cellulases......Page 208
10. Future perspectives......Page 209
11. Challenges......Page 211
12. Conclusion......Page 212
References......Page 213
2. Structure of hemicellulose......Page 216
4. Endoxylanases......Page 218
5. β-d-xylosidases......Page 221
6. α-Arabinofuranosidases......Page 222
7. Acetylxylan esterases......Page 223
9. Mannanases......Page 224
10. Methods for assay of hemicellulolytic activity......Page 225
11. Domain organization of hemicellulases......Page 226
12. Multiplicity of hemicellulases......Page 227
14. Enzyme production......Page 230
15. Applications of hemicellulases......Page 232
References......Page 233
1. Introduction......Page 242
2. Chemical hydrolysis......Page 243
3. Enzymatic hydrolysis......Page 247
4. Separate and simultaneous hydrolysis......Page 251
5. Factors affecting enzymatic hydrolysis......Page 252
6. Recycling of enzymes......Page 256
7. Methods for improving enzymatic hydrolysis......Page 257
8. Kinetic model for enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocelluloses......Page 258
References......Page 261
1. Introduction......Page 264
2. Lignocellulosic biomass......Page 266
3. Pretreatment......Page 268
4. Saccharification......Page 272
5. Fermentation......Page 273
6. Energy production using agroindustrial residues......Page 279
7. Case studies......Page 282
8. Conclusions......Page 291
References......Page 292
1. Introduction......Page 300
2. Common inhibitors for ethanol production......Page 301
3. Formation of inhibitors in lignocelluloses hydrolyzates......Page 304
4. Strategies for minimizing the effects of inhibitors......Page 311
References......Page 319
Section IIIA: Production of biodiesel from vegetable oils......Page 326
1. Introduction......Page 328
2. Enzymatic transesterification......Page 330
3. Enzymatic esterification......Page 336
4. Hydroesterification......Page 338
5. Reactor configurations......Page 339
6. Economic evaluation of enzymatic biodiesel production......Page 344
References......Page 346
1. Introduction......Page 352
2. Supercritical fluid reaction......Page 354
3. Biodiesel production in non-catalytic supercritical fluid reaction......Page 355
4. Conclusion......Page 364
References......Page 365
1. Introduction......Page 366
2. Palm biodiesel conversion technology......Page 368
3. Conclusions......Page 382
References......Page 383
1. Introduction......Page 388
3. Waste oils......Page 389
4. Technical aspect of bd production from waste oils......Page 390
5. Feasibility and economic analyses on bd production from waste oils......Page 398
6. Concluding remarks and future prospects......Page 404
References......Page 405
Section IIIB: Production of biofuels from algae......Page 410
1. Introduction......Page 412
2. Two approaches leading to lipid accumulation in microalgae......Page 415
3. Efforts to further reduce costs of mass culture of heterotrophic microalgae in search for cheap substitutes of glucose......Page 417
4. The scaleup of heterotrophic microalgal biomass production......Page 418
5. Progresses in lipid analysis......Page 419
6. The conversion of algal biomass to biodiesel......Page 420
7. The quality and economic analysis of algal biodiesel......Page 422
8. Concluding remark and future perspectives......Page 423
References......Page 424
1. Introduction......Page 428
2. Autotrophic production technologies......Page 430
3. Heterotrophic and mixotrophic production......Page 431
4. Harvesting and processing of algal biomass......Page 432
5. Challenges in large-scale cultivation of algae......Page 436
6. Resource constraints for mass production of microalgae......Page 437
7. Energy analysis......Page 439
8. Life-cycle assessment......Page 443
9. Future perspectives: challenges and opportunities......Page 448
References......Page 449
1. Introduction......Page 452
2. Basic concepts of photobioreactor engineering......Page 453
3. Modeling of microalgae cultivation systems......Page 457
4. Productivity of microalgal cultivation systems......Page 462
5. Engineering parameters governing photobioreactor productivity......Page 465
6. Existing technology......Page 468
References......Page 474
Section IV: Production of biohydrogen......Page 478
1. Introduction......Page 480
2. Feedstock......Page 481
3. Economics of biohydrogen production......Page 487
4. Future prospects and challenge......Page 488
References......Page 489
1. Introduction......Page 494
3. Water-gas shift reaction of syngas......Page 498
5. Steam requirement for biohydrogen production......Page 499
7. Capital cost of bio-oil production plant......Page 500
9. Production cost of bio-oil......Page 501
10. Cost of bio-oil reforming......Page 503
12. Bio-oil-based biohydrogen cost......Page 504
References......Page 507
2. Biological routes of H2 production......Page 512
3. Biocatalyst......Page 516
4. Renewable wastewater......Page 518
5. Factors influencing H2 production......Page 521
7. Process limitations......Page 524
8. Strategies to enhance process efficiency......Page 525
9. Future outlook......Page 531
References......Page 532
1. Background......Page 538
2. Thermodynamic aspects......Page 539
3. Biochemical pathways and microbiology......Page 540
4. effect of process conditions......Page 541
5. Practical applications......Page 543
6. Challenges, possibilities, and future perspectives......Page 546
References......Page 547
1. Introduction......Page 550
2. Integrated Continuously stirred tank reactors......Page 551
3. Anaerobic fluidized-bed reactor......Page 554
4. Packed-bed Reactors......Page 556
5. Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactors......Page 559
6. Photobioreactors......Page 561
7. Microbial electrolysis cells......Page 565
8. Comparison of various biohydrogen reactor systems......Page 568
9. Challenges and future implications......Page 570
10. Conclusions......Page 575
References......Page 576
Section V: Production of biobutanol and other green fuels......Page 582
1. Introduction......Page 584
2. Butanol production by clostridia: the abe fermentation......Page 586
3. Sporulation and solventogenesis: the scope for decoupling......Page 587
4. Metabolic engineering approaches to improve abe fermentation......Page 588
5. Fermentation technologies and downstream processing for abe fermentation......Page 590
6. Conclusions......Page 595
References......Page 596
1. Introduction......Page 600
2. Desired characteristics of green liquid hydrocarbon fuels (GLHF)......Page 604
3. Technologies for production of GLHF......Page 608
4. Feedstock considerations for GLHF......Page 614
References......Page 620
Index......Page 622