Bioenergy Research: Biomass Waste to Energy

Foreword
Acknowledgements
Contents
About the Editors
1: Advancements in Biofuel Production
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Environmental Effects of Fossil Fuels
	1.3 Need for Alternative of Fossil Fuels
	1.4 Production of Biofuels
	1.5 Advancement in Biofuel Generations
	1.6 First Generation (1G) Biofuels
	1.7 Second Generation (2G) Biofuels
	1.8 Third Generation (3G) Biofuels
	1.9 Fourth Generation (4G) Biofuels
	1.10 Recent Advancements in Biofuel Production
	1.11 Bioethanol
	1.12 Biobutanol
	1.13 Biodiesel
	1.14 Biohydrogen
	1.15 Biogas
	1.16 Conclusion
	References
2: Bioenergy: Sustainable Renewable Energy
	2.1 Introduction: Bio Energy-A Sustainable Energy Source
	2.2 Biomass
		2.2.1 Biomass Feedstock
	2.3 Biomass and Land Use
	2.4 Technologies for Biomass Conversion
		2.4.1 Biochemical Conversion
			2.4.1.1 Anaerobic Digestion
				Hydrolysis
				Acidogenesis
				Acetogenesis
				Methanogenesis
			2.4.1.2 Fermentation
		2.4.2 Thermochemical Conversion
			2.4.2.1 Pyrolysis
				Slow Pyrolysis
				Fast Pyrolysis
				Flash Pyrolysis
				Catalytic Pyrolysis
			2.4.2.2 Gasification
			2.4.2.3 Combustion
			2.4.2.4 Hydrothermal Processing
		2.4.3 Physiochemical Conversion
			2.4.3.1 Esterification
	2.5 Examples of Biofuels
		2.5.1 Bioethanol
		2.5.2 Biodiesel
		2.5.3 Biogas
		2.5.4 Other Sustainable Fuels
	2.6 Benefits of Biofuels
		2.6.1 Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions
		2.6.2 Generating Heat and Electricity
		2.6.3 Better Air Quality
		2.6.4 Biofuels Are Biodegradable
		2.6.5 Local Economic Development
		2.6.6 Providing Support to Agricultural and Food-Processing Industries
		2.6.7 Cost Savings
		2.6.8 Less Landfills
		2.6.9 Energy Security
		2.6.10 New Technologies and Applications
		2.6.11 Alternatives to Prescribed Forest Burning
		2.6.12 Environmental Benefits from Bioenergy Crops
	2.7 Uses of Biofuels as Sustainable Renewable Energy
		2.7.1 Transportation
		2.7.2 Power Generation
		2.7.3 Heat Generation
		2.7.4 Remediation of Oil Spills
		2.7.5 Cooking Fuel
		2.7.6 Other Uses
	2.8 Conclusion
	References
3: Biofuel from Microalgae
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Characteristics of Microalgae
	3.3 Production of Microalgae
	3.4 Harvesting of Microalgae
	3.5 Generations of Biofuels
	3.6 Types of Biofuels from Microalgae
		3.6.1 Biodiesel
		3.6.2 Bioethanol
		3.6.3 Biomethane
		3.6.4 Biohydrogen
	3.7 Benefits and Drawbacks of Microalgae-Derived Biofuel
	3.8 Worldwide Production of Biofuel
	3.9 Other Applications of Microalgae
	3.10 Conclusion
	References
4: Waste to Bioenergy: Recent Technologies
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Biomass Residues and Wastes
	4.3 Residue of Agriculture and Wood
	4.4 Algal Biomass
	4.5 Waste Oils (Used Cooking Oils)
	4.6 Bioenergy ``Conversion Techniques´´
	4.7 Thermochemical Conversion
		4.7.1 Gasification
		4.7.2 Liquefaction
		4.7.3 Pyrolysis
	4.8 Physical Upgradation
	4.9 Hydrodeoxygenation Upgradation
	4.10 Catalytic ``Upgradation´´
	4.11 Biochemical Conversion
		4.11.1 Anaerobic Digestion
		4.11.2 Fermentation-Alcoholic
		4.11.3 Hydrogen Production: Photobiological
	4.12 Transesterification
	4.13 Acid/Base and Enzyme Catalysis
		4.13.1 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) Method
	4.14 Bioelectricity Production from Biomass
	4.15 Current Challenge and Future Prospects
	4.16 Conclusions
	References
5: Bioenergy from Agricultural Wastes
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Biomass
	5.3 Biology of Biomass
	5.4 Agricultural Residues
	5.5 Types of Bioenergy
		5.5.1 Bioalcohol
		5.5.2 Biodiesel
		5.5.3 Biogas
	5.6 Bioenergy Production
	5.7 Raw Material
	5.8 Production of Bioenergy
	5.9 Conversion to Biofuels
	5.10 Advantages of Biofuels
	5.11 Effect on Environment and Economy
	5.12 Challenges and Advances
	5.13 Conclusion
	References
6: Bio-Processing: Biomass to Commercial Alcohol
	6.0 Introduction
	6.0 Composition of Biomass
		6.1.1 Cellulose
		6.1.1 Hemicellulose
		6.1.1 Lignin
		6.1.1 Starch
		6.1.1 Minor Organic Components
		6.1.1 Inorganic Matter
		6.1.1 Other Elements in Biomass
		6.1.1 Fluid Matter
	6.0 Factors Affecting Ethanol Production
		6.1.1 Temperature
		6.1.1 Composition of substrate
		6.1.1 Influence of pH
	6.0 Agricultural Waste for Production of Alcohol
		6.1.1 Plant Crops
			6.1.1.1 Sugarcane
			6.1.1.1 Sorghum
			6.1.1.1 Beetroot (Sugar Beet)
		6.1.1 Other Sugar- and Starch-Containing Plant Produces
		6.1.1 Other Sources of Biomass
	6.0 Pretreatment of Biomass
	6.0 Fermentation Process
	6.0 Case Studies
		6.1.1 Production of Ethanol
	6.0 Conclusion
	References
7: Hydrogen Production by Utilizing Bio-Processing Techniques
	7.1 Introduction
		7.1.1 Hydrogen Application
	7.2 Hydrogen Production via Biological Processes
		7.2.1 Biophotolysis
		7.2.2 Dark Fermentative Hydrogen Production
			7.2.2.1 Organisms
			7.2.2.2 Consequences of Substrate
			7.2.2.3 Effects of Trace Metals and Minerals
			7.2.2.4 Effects of pH
			7.2.2.5 Effects of Temperature
			7.2.2.6 Effects of Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT)
			7.2.2.7 Effect of Partial Pressure
		7.2.3 Photo-Fermentative Hydrogen Production
			7.2.3.1 Organisms
			7.2.3.2 Effects of Substrate
			7.2.3.3 Effects of Trace Metals and Minerals
			7.2.3.4 Effect of Illumination
	7.3 Biological Production of Hydrogen
		7.3.1 Fermentation
		7.3.2 Enzymes and Biocatalyst
			7.3.2.1 Hydrogenases
			7.3.2.2 Nitrogenase
	7.4 Biomass Production of Hydrogen
		7.4.1 Pyrolysis
		7.4.2 Biomass Gasification
	7.5 Water-Gas Shift Reaction (WGSR)
	7.6 Hydrogen in the Future and Economic Perspectives
	7.7 Summary
	References
8: Bacterial Hydrogen Production: Prospects and Challenges
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Microbial Hydrogen Production
	8.3 Mesophilic Bacterial Hydrogen Production
	8.4 Thermophilic Bacterial Hydrogen Production
	8.5 Phototrophic Bacterial Hydrogen Production
	8.6 Structure and Functions of Nitrogenase and Hydrogenase
	8.7 Factors Influencing Hydrogen Production
		8.7.1 Pretreatment
		8.7.2 Light Intensity
		8.7.3 Temperature
		8.7.4 pH
		8.7.5 Carbon Sources
		8.7.6 Nitrogen Sources
		8.7.7 Immobilization
		8.7.8 Metal Ions and Co-Cultures
		8.7.9 Inhibitors
		8.7.10 Bioreactors
	8.8 Prospects and Challenges
	8.9 Conclusions
	References
9: Bioethanol Production from Biodiesel-Derived Glycerol: A Case Study
	9.1 Biofuels
	9.2 Glycerol: A Byproduct of Biodiesel Industry
	9.3 Microbial Fermentation of Glycerol to Bioethanol and Other Alcohols
	9.4 Other Applications of Glycerol
	9.5 Laboratory Scale Case Study
		9.5.1 Biodiesel and Crude Glycerol from Waste Cooking Oil
		9.5.2 Isolation, Screening, and Characterization of Glycerol-Utilizing Bacteria
		9.5.3 Screening for Ethanol Production
		9.5.4 Glycerin Soap from Biodiesel Byproduct
	9.6 Concluding Remarks and Future Prospects
	References
10: Advancement on Biomass Classification, Analytical Methods for Characterization, and Its Economic Importance
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Classification of Biomass
		10.2.1 Woody Biomass from Higher Plants
		10.2.2 Biomass from Herbaceous Sources
		10.2.3 Biomass from Animal and Human Waste
		10.2.4 Aquatic Biomass
		10.2.5 Mixed Biomass
	10.3 Major Components of Biomass
		10.3.1 Cellulose
		10.3.2 Hemicellulose
		10.3.3 Lignin
		10.3.4 Starch
	10.4 Characterization Techniques
		10.4.1 Chemical Methods
			10.4.1.1 FTIR Analysis
			10.4.1.2 XPS Analysis
			10.4.1.3 Mass Spectrometry (MS)
		10.4.2 Physical Method for Biomass Characterization
			10.4.2.1 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
			10.4.2.2 TEM Analysis
			10.4.2.3 AFM
			10.4.2.4 XRD Analysis
		10.4.3 Biological Characterization
			10.4.3.1 Maxam-Gilbert Sequencing
			10.4.3.2 Sanger Dideoxy or Chain Termination Sequencing Method
			10.4.3.3 Automated DNA Sequencing
			10.4.3.4 Pyrosequencing
	10.5 Economic Importance of Microbial Biomass
		10.5.1 Solid Waste Management
		10.5.2 Bioenergy Production
		10.5.3 Wastewater Treatment
	10.6 Conclusion
	References