Biodegradable Polymer-Based Food Packaging

Preface
Acknowledgement
Contents
About the Editors
1: Introduction: Scope and Importance of Biodegradable Polymers
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Development of Biodegradable Polymers
	1.3 Classification of Biodegradable Polymers
		1.3.1 Agro-based Biopolymers
		1.3.2 Bio-derived Monomer-Synthesized Biopolymers
		1.3.3 Biopolymers Synthesized from Synthetic Monomers
		1.3.4 Microbially Extracted Biopolymers
	1.4 Biocomposites
	1.5 Biodegradable Polymer Application in the Food Sector
	1.6 Challenges and Market Opportunities
	1.7 Conclusion and Future Prospective
	References
2: Plant-Derived Biopolymers in Food Packaging: Current Status and Market Potential
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Plant-Based Biopolymers in Food Packaging Industry
	2.3 Plant Polysaccharide-Based Packaging Polymers
		2.3.1 Starch
		2.3.2 Cellulose
		2.3.3 Gums
		2.3.4 Pectin
	2.4 Plant Protein-Based Packaging Polymers
		2.4.1 Wheat Gluten
		2.4.2 Soy Protein
		2.4.3 Zein
	2.5 Current Status and Market Potential
	2.6 Conclusion
	References
3: Plant- and Animal-Derived Enzymes and Their Potential Application in Food Processing and Preservation
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Enzyme Working on Carbohydrates
		3.2.1 Amylases
			3.2.1.1 α-Amylases
				Food Application of α-Amylases
					Starch Hydrolysis
					Baking and Baked Goods Industries
					Brewery and Fermentations
			3.2.1.2 β-Amylases
				Properties and Applications
		3.2.2 Pectic Enzymes
			3.2.2.1 Introduction
			3.2.2.2 Polygalacturonases
			3.2.2.3 Pectin Methylesteraseases
			3.2.2.4 Pectate Lyases
		3.2.3 Cellulases
		3.2.4 Other Glycosidases
			3.2.4.1 β-Glucosidases
			3.2.4.2 Xylanases
			3.2.4.3 Glucoamylase
	3.3 Enzymes Working on Proteins
		3.3.1 Specificity
		3.3.2 Classification
			3.3.2.1 Serine Proteases
			3.3.2.2 Aspartic (Acid) Proteases
			3.3.2.3 Cysteine (Sulfhydryl) Proteases
			3.3.2.4 Metalloproteases
		3.3.3 Application of Proteases in Food Industry
			3.3.3.1 Production of Protein Hydrolysates
			3.3.3.2 Application of Proteolytic Enzymes in Dairy Industry
				Cheese Manufacturing
				Milk Clotting Enzymes from Plants
			3.3.3.3 Application of Enzymes in Meat Industry
				Papain
				Bromelain
				Ficin
				Actinidin
				Conclusion
		3.3.4 Bioactive Peptides
	3.4 Enzymes Working on Lipids
		3.4.1 Lipases
		3.4.2 Lipoxygenases
		3.4.3 Phospholipases
	3.5 Miscellaneous Enzymes
		3.5.1 Catalase
		3.5.2 Amino Oxidases
		3.5.3 Phenylalanine Ammonia-Lyase
		3.5.4 Lysozyme
	3.6 Conclusions
	References
4: Microbial-Derived Biodegradable Polymers as Food Packaging Tool
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Biodegradable Polymers in Food Packaging
		4.2.1 Biopolymer-Based Food Packaging
		4.2.2 Microbial Biopolymers
		4.2.3 Bacterial Polysaccharides in Food Packaging
		4.2.4 Properties
		4.2.5 Food Packaging Film and Coating Application
		4.2.6 Other Aplications
		4.2.7 Blends of Polysaccharides
		4.2.8 Nanocomposites
		4.2.9 Bacterial Cellulose (BC)
		4.2.10 Properties
		4.2.11 BC Applications from Medical to Food Packaging
		4.2.12 BC Bio-based Films and Coatings for Packaging
		4.2.13 BC Active Packaging Materials
		4.2.14 Other Applications for BC
		4.2.15 Application of BC-Based Composites
		4.2.16 Future of BC
	4.3 (PHAs)
	4.4 PHB
		4.4.1 PHB Properties
		4.4.2 Molecular Weight of PHA
		4.4.3 Physiological Characteristics of Microorganisms
		4.4.4 PHA Synthase Expression Levels
		4.4.5 Carbon Source
		4.4.6 Cultivation Conditions
		4.4.7 Nutrient Restriction
		4.4.8 Culture pH
		4.4.9 Cultivation Age
		4.4.10 Temperature
	4.5 Polyhydroxybutyrate Purification and Extraction Methods
		4.5.1 Production Costs
	4.6 PHA Applications: Biomedical and Biopackaging
	4.7 Main Approaches to Improve PHB Properties for Food Packaging
	4.8 Production of Copolymers
	4.9 Blending
	4.10 PHA Nanocomposite Film
	4.11 Other Roles of Nanotechnology in Food Packaging
	4.12 Nanotechnology in PHB Application in Food Packaging
		4.12.1 Physical Properties
		4.12.2 Permeability
		4.12.3 Thermal Instability
		4.12.4 Migration
		4.12.5 Biodegradation
	4.13 Conclusion
	References
5: Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) in Food Packaging
	5.1 Introduction
		5.1.1 Biopolymer
		5.1.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)
	5.2 Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB)
	5.3 Food Packaging
	5.4 Materials Guidelines for PHA Usage
	5.5 Conclusion
	References
6: Green Polymer-Based Biodegradable Packaging
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Biopolymers, Its Sources, and Characteristics
	6.3 Bio-nanocomposites
	6.4 Active Packaging
	6.5 Intelligent Packaging
	6.6 Green Packaging and Its Characteristics
	6.7 Application of Biopolymers in Other Areas
	6.8 Conclusion
	References
7: Role of Agro-Wastes in Economical Food Packaging Material Synthesis
	7.1 Basics on Agricultural Waste
	7.2 Global Scenario of Agro-Waste
	7.3 Classification of Agro-Waste for Packaging Material
	7.4 Utilization of Cereal and Sugarcane Bagasse for Biodegradable Packaging Material
		7.4.1 Rice Straw and Rice Husk
		7.4.2 Wheat Straw
		7.4.3 Barley Straw and Barley Husk
		7.4.4 Maize (Corn Cob and Corn Husk)
		7.4.5 Sugarcane Bagasse
	7.5 Utilization of Fruit and Vegetable Processing Waste for Biodegradable Food Packaging
	7.6 Utilization of Dairy Processing Waste for Biodegradable Food Packaging
	7.7 Utilization of Meat and By-Products Processing Waste for Biodegradable Food Packaging
		7.7.1 Production of Gelatin
			7.7.1.1 Acid Process (Type A Gelatin)
			7.7.1.2 Alkali Process (Type B Gelatin)
		7.7.2 Enzyme Process
	7.8 Conclusion and Future Prospects
	References
8: Microbial Biopolymers and Enzymes Involved in the Biosynthesis of PHAs
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Classification of Biopolymers
	8.3 Biodegradable Packaging Materials Produced by Microbes
		8.3.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA)
			8.3.1.1 Microbial Production of Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)
		8.3.2 Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB)
	8.4 Biosynthetic Pathways Involved in the Production of Biopolymers
		8.4.1 Enzymes Involved in the Biosynthesis of PHA
		8.4.2 PHA Synthase (PhaC)
	8.5 Conclusion
	8.6 Future Aspects
	References
9: Metabolic Engineering for Synthesis of Biodegradable Polymers with Potential Application in Food Packaging
	9.1 Introduction
		9.1.1 Food Packaging Biopolymers
	9.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)
		9.2.1 PHA Biosynthetic Mechanisms
		9.2.2 Role of β-Oxidation Cycle
		9.2.3 Manipulation Ribosome Binding Site and Promoters
		9.2.4 CRISPR Technology
	9.3 Bacterial Cellulose (BC)
	9.4 Pullulan
	9.5 Xanthan
	9.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	References
10: Downstream Processing Strategies for Synthesis of Biodegradable Polymers
	10.1 Introduction
		10.1.1 Biodegradable Polymer
		10.1.2 Biodegradable Polymer Application
		10.1.3 Future of Biopolymer
		10.1.4 Life Cycle Assessment of Biopolymer
		10.1.5 Downstream Technologies for Biopolymer Extraction
		10.1.6 Conclusion
	References
11: Functionality Test Methods for Biodegradable Polymers
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Mechanical Properties of Biopolymers
		11.2.1 Stress-Strain Properties
	11.3 Water Resistance
		11.3.1 Water Solubility
		11.3.2 Water Vapour Permeability
		11.3.3 Moisture Absorption
	11.4 Thermal Stability
	11.5 Light Barrier Property
	11.6 Gas Transfer Property
	11.7 Biodegradation Test
	11.8 Antioxidant Activity
	11.9 Antimicrobial Activity
	11.10 International Standards for Biopolymers
	11.11 Summary
	References
12: Nanocomposite Biodegradable Polymers for Food Packaging
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Nanocomposite Properties and Classification
	12.3 Biopolymer-Based Nanocomposite
		12.3.1 Carbohydrate
			12.3.1.1 Cellulose
			12.3.1.2 Starch and Derivatives
		12.3.2 Proteins
		12.3.3 Microbial Production or Fermentation: PHA
		12.3.4 Conventional and Chemical Synthesis
			12.3.4.1 PLA Nanocomposites
	12.4 Packaging Technology
		12.4.1 Active Packaging
			12.4.1.1 Antioxidant Agents
			12.4.1.2 Antimicrobial Agents
		12.4.2 Controlled Release Packaging
	12.5 Mechanical Properties
		12.5.1 Factors Affecting the Mechanical Properties of Polymers
	12.6 Water Sensitivity
	12.7 Water Vapor and Gas Permeability
	References
13: Biopolymer-Based Active and Intelligent Packaging for Food Applications
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Food Packaging Revolution
		13.2.1 Conventional Food Packaging
		13.2.2 Progresses in Food Packaging
			13.2.2.1 Intelligent Packaging
			13.2.2.2 Active Packaging
	13.3 Development of Films for Biodegradable Food Packaging
	13.4 Polymers from Renewable Resources
		13.4.1 Polymers Derived from Microbes
			13.4.1.1 Polylactic Acid (PLA)
			13.4.1.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)
			13.4.1.3 Exopolysaccharides (EPS)
		13.4.2 Wood-Based Polymers
			13.4.2.1 Celluloses and Hemicelluloses
			13.4.2.2 Starch
			13.4.2.3 Lignins
		13.4.3 Protein-Based Polymers
			13.4.3.1 Collagen and Gelatin
			13.4.3.2 Wheat Gluten Films
			13.4.3.3 Soy Protein Film
			13.4.3.4 Whey Protein Films
	13.5 Processing of Biodegradable Packaging Substances
		13.5.1 WP
		13.5.2 DP
		13.5.3 In Situ Polymerization
		13.5.4 Bilayer Systems
	13.6 Application of Biopolymers in Active Packaging
		13.6.1 Moisture Absorbers
		13.6.2 Antimicrobial Packaging
		13.6.3 Carbon Dioxide Emitters
		13.6.4 Oxygen Scavengers
		13.6.5 Antioxidant Packaging
	13.7 Application of Biopolymers in Intelligent Packaging
		13.7.1 Indicators
			13.7.1.1 Temperature Indicators (TIs)
			13.7.1.2 Time-Temperature Indicators (TTIs)
			13.7.1.3 Freshness Indicators (FIs)
			13.7.1.4 Gas Indicators (GIs)
		13.7.2 Data Carriers
		13.7.3 Sensors
	13.8 Conclusions
	References
14: Application of Biopolymer Blends as Edible Films and Coatings in Food Packaging
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Food Packaging
		14.2.1 Different Types and Properties of Packaging Materials
			14.2.1.1 Application of Metals in Food Packaging
			14.2.1.2 Application of Glasses in Food Packaging
			14.2.1.3 Application of Papers in Food Packaging
			14.2.1.4 Application of Plastics in Food Packaging
	14.3 Biopolymer Materials
		14.3.1 Natural Biopolymers
			14.3.1.1 Polysaccharides
			14.3.1.2 Proteins
			14.3.1.3 Lipids
		14.3.2 Synthetics Biopolymers
			14.3.2.1 Poly(Lactic Acid) (PLA)
			14.3.2.2 Poly(Butylene Succinate) (PBS)
			14.3.2.3 Poly(Glycolic Acid) (PGA)
			14.3.2.4 Poly(Trimethylene Terephthalate) (PTT)
			14.3.2.5 Poly(ε-Caprolactone) (PCL)
			14.3.2.6 Poly(Butylene Adipate-Co-Terephthalate) (PBAT)
			14.3.2.7 Poly(Vinyl Alcohol) (PVA)
		14.3.3 Microorganisms
			14.3.3.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
			14.3.3.2 Pullulan
			14.3.3.3 Curdlan
		14.3.4 Biopolymer Blends
	14.4 Biopolymer Blends Fabrication Processes
		14.4.1 Solvent Casting
		14.4.2 Extrusion
		14.4.3 Electrospinning
		14.4.4 Three-Dimensional Printing
		14.4.5 Layer-by-Layer (LbL) Assembly
	14.5 Application of Biopolymer Blends in Food Packaging
		14.5.1 Antimicrobial Packaging
		14.5.2 Antioxidant Packaging
		14.5.3 Active Packaging
	14.6 Conclusion
	References
15: Standards and Guidelines for Testing Biodegradability of Bioplastic
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Standards of Test Methods and Specifications
	15.3 International Standards for Organization (ISO) Standards for Biodegradability of Bio-Based Plastics
	15.4 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Standards for Biodegradability of Bio-Based Plastics
	15.5 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Standards for Biodegradability of Bio-Based Plastics
	15.6 European Standards for Biodegradability of Bio-Based Plastics
	15.7 Certification and Labeling
	15.8 Certification Process
	15.9 Conclusions
	References
16: Future Prospects of Biodegradable Polymers with Potential Application in Food Industry
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Biodegradable Polymers
	16.3 Classification of Biopolymers
		16.3.1 Biopolymers (Renewable Sources)
		16.3.2 Polymers (Fossil Sources)
	16.4 Polysaccharides in Food Packaging
		16.4.1 Animal-Derived Polysaccharides
			16.4.1.1 Chitin
			16.4.1.2 Chitosan
		16.4.2 Polysaccharides Obtained from Plants
			16.4.2.1 Starch
			16.4.2.2 Galactomannans
				Cellulose
		16.4.3 Polysaccharides Obtained from Algae
		16.4.4 Polysaccharides Obtained from Microorganisms
			16.4.4.1 Pullulan
			16.4.4.2 Gellan Gum
			16.4.4.3 Xanthan Gum
			16.4.4.4 Fucopol
	16.5 Degradation of Biodegradable Polymer-Based Systems
	16.6 Case Studies on Biodegradable Polymers
	16.7 Characteristics of Multilayer Biologically Degradable Polymer Film
	16.8 Recent Advances in Commercial Bioplastic
	16.9 Reinforcement of Nanocellulose in a Polymer Matrix
	16.10 Future Concerns
	16.11 Potential Problems
	16.12 Conclusion
	References