Biochemistry For Life Sciences

Cover
Dedication
Contents
Preface
About the Author
Chapter 1 : Important Properties and Chemistry of Water,
pH and Buffers
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Chemistry of Water
	1.3 The Law of Mass Action
		1.3.1 Dissociation of Water and its lon Product, kw
		1.3.2 pH
	1.4 Bronsted Acids
	1.5 Dissociation of Strong Electrolytes
	1.6 Ionization of Weak Acids
	1.7 Ionization of Weak Bases
	1.8 The Henderson–Hasselbalch Equation
	1.9 Titration Curves
	1.10 Determination of pKa
	1.11 Buffers
	1.12 Physiological Buffers
	Exercises
	Multiple Choice Questions
Chapter 2 : Bioenergetics and Biological Oxidation
	2.1 Introduction to Bioenergetics
	2.2 Laws of Thermodynamics or Laws of Conservation of Energy
	2.3 The Concept of Free Energy
	2.4 Determination of ΔG
	2.5 Energy-Rich Compounds
		2.5.1 Pyrophosphate Compounds
		2.5.2 Acyl Phosphates
		2.5.3 Enolic Phosphate
		2.5.4 Thiol Esters
		2.5.5 Guanidinium Phosphates
	2.6 ΔG and Oxidation–Reduction
	2.7 Introduction of Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation
	2.8 Components Involved in Electron Transport
		2.8.1 Nicotinamide Nucleotides
		2.8.2 Flavoproteins
		2.8.3 NHI Proteins
		2.8.4 Quinones
		2.8.5 The Cytochromes
	2.9 The Respiratory Chain
	2.10 Oxidative Phosphorylation
	2.11 The Energetics of Oxidative Phosphorylation
	2.12 Energy Conservation Process
	2.13 Integration of Carbohydrate, Lipid and Amino Acid Metabolism
		2.13.1 Interconversion of Carbohydrate, Lipid and Protein
		2.13.2 Interrelationships in Metabolic Control
	Exercises
	Multiple Choice Questions
Chapter 3 : Structure, Composition and Functions of Cell and
Cell Membrane
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Cell Walls
		3.2.1 Prokaryotic Cell Walls
		3.2.2 Comparison of Features of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
		3.2.3 Plant Cell Walls
		3.2.4 Animal Cell Surfaces
	3.3 Plasma Membrane
		3.3.1 Membrane Lipids
		3.3.2 Membrane Proteins
	3.4 Cell Organelles
		3.4.1 Endoplasmic Reticulum
		3.4.2 Golgi Apparatus (Dictyosomes)
		3.4.3 Ribosome
		3.4.4 Mitochondria (Singular: Mitochondrion)
		3.4.5 Chloroplast
		3.4.6 Lysosomes
		3.4.7 Nucleus
		3.4.8 Microbodies
	3.5 Transport Processes
		3.5.1 Passive Diffusion
		3.5.2 Facilitated Diffusion
		3.5.3 Active Transport
		3.5.4 Respiratory Linked Active Transport
		3.5.5 ATP-dependent Transport
		Exercises
		Multiple Choice Questions
Chapter 4 : Composition of Carbohydrates
	4.1 Introduction to Carbohydrate
	4.2 Classification of Carbohydrates
	4.3 Monosaccharides
		4.3.1 Monosaccharides have Asymmetric Carbon Atom
		4.3.2 Enantiomer
		4.3.3 D and L Forms
		4.3.4 Epimers
		4.3.5 Pyranose and Furanose Rings
		4.3.6 α- and b-Anomers
		4.3.7 I somerism
		4.3.8 Projection and Perspective Formulas
		4.3.9 Chemical Properties of Monosaccharides
	4.4 Compound Carbohydrates
	4.5 Oligosaccharides
		4.5.1 Disaccharides
		4.5.2 Trisaccharides
		4.5.3 Tetrasaccharides
	4.6 Polysaccharides
		4.6.1 Storage Polysaccharides
		4.6.2 Structural Polysaccharides
	4.7 Qualitative Tests for Identification of Carbohydrates
		4.7.1 Colour Reactions of Carbohydrates
		4.7.2 Chart for Differentiating an unknown Carbohydrate
	Exercises
	Multiple Choice Questions
Chapter 5 : Composition of Lipids
	5.1 Introduction
		5.1.1 Lipids as an Energy Reserve
		5.1.2 Definitions
	5.2 Classification of Lipids
		5.2.1 Phospholipids
		5.2.2 Non-Phosphorylated Lipids
	5.3 Fatty Acids
		5.3.1 Nomenclature for Fatty Acids
		5.3.2 Classification of Some Naturally Occurring Fatty Acids
	5.4 Fats: Fats are Fatty Acid Esters of Glycerol
		5.4.1 Physical Properties of Fats
	5.5 Waxes
	5.6 Phospholipids or Phosphatides
		5.6.1 Basic Structure of Phospholipids
		5.6.2 Classification of the Phosphatides
	5.7 Non-Phosphorylated Lipids
		5.7.1 Non-Phosphorylated Lipids
	5.8 Steroids
		5.8.1 Animal Sterols
	5.9 Qualitative Test for Lipids
		5.9.1 Colour Reaction to Detect Sterols
	Exercises
	Multiple Choice Questions
Chapter 6 : Composition of Amino Acids
	6.1 Introduction to Amino Acids
		6.1.1 Essential Amino Acids
		6.1.2 Non-essential Amino Acids
	6.2 General Structure and Properties of Amino Acids
	6.3 Classification of Amino Acids
	6.4 Isomerism
	6.5 Ionic Properties of Amino Acids
	6.6 Peptides
	6.7 General Reactions of Amino Acids
		6.7.1 Ninhydrin
		6.7.2 o-Phthalaldehyde
		6.7.3 Fluorescamine
	6.8 N-Terminal Analysis
	6.9 Reactions of Specific Amino Acids
		6.9.1 Colorimetric Methods
		6.9.2 Microbiological Methods
		6.9.3 Enzymic Methods
	6.10 Separation of Amino Acid Mixtures
		6.10.1 Paper and Thin Layer Chromatography
	Exercises
	Multiple Choice Questions
Chapter 7 : Composition of Proteins
	7.1 Introduction to Proteins
	7.2 Importance and Structure of Proteins
		7.2.1 Primary Structure of Proteins
		7.2.2 Secondary Structure of Proteins
		7.2.3 Tertiary Structure
		7.2.4 Quaternary Structure
	7.3 General Methods of Quantitation
		7.3.1 Spectroscopic Methods
		7.3.2 Chemical Methods
		7.3.3 Physical Methods
	7.4 Separation Techniques of Proteins
		7.4.1 Precipitation
		7.4.2 Electrophoresis
		7.4.3 SDS Electrophoresis
		7.4.4 Chromatographic Methods
	7.5 Mechanism of Protein Synthesis
		7.5.1 Transcription of RNA on DNA
		7.5.2 Role of Ribosomes
		7.5.3 Synthesis of Polypeptide Chains
	7.6 Control of Protein Synthesis
	7.7 Control at Translational Level
	7.8 Glycosylation of Proteins
	7.9 Denaturation of Proteins
	7.10 Nitrogenous Constituent of Urine
		7.10.1 Composition of Urine
		7.10.2 Urea
		7.10.3 Ammonia
		7.10.4 Uric Acid and Other Purines
		7.10.5 Creatinine and Creatine
		7.10.6 Amino Acids
		7.10.7 Hippuric Acid
		7.10.8 Allantoin
		7.10.9 Proteins
		7.10.10 Ketone Bodies
	Exercises
	Multiple Choice Questions
Chapter 8 : Composition of Nucleic Acids and DNA Structure and its Replication
	8.1 Introduction of Nucleic Acids
		8.1.1 Chemical Composition of Nucleic Acids
	8.2 The Structure of Nucleic Acids
		8.2.1 Nucleic Acid
		8.2.2 Purines and Pyrimidines
		8.2.3 Bases, Nucleosides and Nucleotides
		8.2.4 Nucleoside 5'-Diphosphates and 5'-Triphosphates
		8.2.5 Polynucleotides
	8.3 Structure of RNA
	8.4 Types of RNA
		8.4.1 Transfer RNA
		8.4.2 Ribosomal RNA
		8.4.3 Messenger RNA
	8.5 Structure of DNA
	8.6 Different Forms of DNA
	8.7 Chemistry of the Nucleic Acids
		8.7.1 Isolation of Nucleic Acids
		8.7.2 Thermal Properties of DNA
	8.8 Nucleoproteins
	8.9 Viruses
	8.10 Nucleotides of Biological Importance
		8.10.1 Adenosine Derivatives
		8.10.2 Guanosine Derivatives
		8.10.3 Hypoxanthine Derivatives
		8.10.4 Uracil Derivatives
		8.10.5 Cytosine Derivatives
		8.10.6 Synthetic Nucleotide Analogues
	8.11 Characteristics of DNA Replication
		8.11.1 DNA Replication in Prokaryotes
		8.11.2 Maturation of Okazaki Fragments
		8.11.3 DNA Replication in Eukaryotes
		8.11.4 Termination of Replication
		8.11.5 Regulation of Replication
		Exercises
		Multiple Choice Questions
Chapter 9 : Metabolism of Carbohydrates
	9.1 Introduction to Carbohydrate Metabolism
	9.2 Glycolysis–Anaerobic Pathway or Embden-Meyerhof Pathway
		9.2.1 Reactions of Glycolysis Pathway
		9.2.2 Preparatory Phase of Glycolysis
		9.2.3 Fate of Pyruvate after Glycolysis
		9.2.4 Regulation of Glycolysis
		9.2.5 Glycerophosphate Shuttle
		9.2.6 Malate–Aspartate Shuttle
	9.3 Gluconeogenesis
		9.3.1 Pathway of Gluconeogenesis
		9.3.2 Regulation of Gluconeogenesis
	9.4 Cori Cycle
	9.5 Utilization of Other Carbohydrates
		9.5.1 Utilization of Galactose
	9.6 Biosynthesis of Some Carbohydrates
		9.6.1 The Role of Sugar Nucleotides
	9.7 Pentose Phosphate Pathway: Hexose Mono Phosphate (HMP) Shunt
		9.7.1 Enzymes of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway
		9.7.2 Significance of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway
		9.7.3 Entner-Doudoroff Pathway
	9.8 Citric Acid Cycle
		9.8.1 Reactions of the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)
		9.8.2 Regulation of the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
		9.8.3 Anaplerotic Reaction
	9.9 The Glyoxylic Acid Cycle
	9.10 Glycogenesis
		9.10.1 Steps of Glycogenesis Pathway
	9.11 Glycogenolysis
		9.11.1 Reaction
		9.11.2 Regulation
	9.12 Regulation of Blood Glucose
	9.13 Carbohydrate Metabolic Disorder and Diseases
		9.13.1 Diabetes Mellitus
		9.13.2 Hereditary Disorders of Glycogen Metabolism
	9.14 Summary of Carbohydrate Metabolism
	Exercises
	Multiple Choice Questions
Chapter 10 : Metabolism of Lipids
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Functions of Tissues in Lipid Metabolism
	10.3 Fatty Acid Transport into Mitochondria
	10.4 Fatty Acid Oxidation
		10.4.1 β-Oxidation of Saturated Fatty Acids
		10.4.2 β-Oxidation of Unsaturated Fatty Acids
		10.4.3 β-Oxidation of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid
		10.4.4 β-Oxidation of Odd-Numbered Chains
		10.4.5 Oxidation in Peroxisomes
	10.5 Fatty Acid Biosynthesis
		10.5.1 Desaturases of Fatty Acid
		10.5.2 Differences between Fatty Acid Synthesis and b-Oxidation Pathways
		10.5.3 Regulation of FA Metabolism
	10.6 Cholesterol Metabolism
		10.6.1 The Biosynthesis of Cholestrol
		10.6.2 Regulation of Cholesterol Biosynthesis
		10.6.3 Catabolism of Cholesterol
	10.7 Classification of Plasma Lipoproteins and the Systemic Pathway of Lipids
		10.7.1 Types of Lipoprotein
		10.7.2 Chylomicrons
		10.7.3 Very Low Density Lipoproteins (VLDL)
		10.7.4 Intermediate Density Lipoproteins (IDL)
		10.7.5 Low Density Lipoproteins (LDL) and Lipoprotein(a)
		10.7.6 High Density Lipoproteins
	10.8 Biosynthesis of Triacylglycerols
	10.9 Glycerophospholipid Biosynthesis
		10.9.1 Phosphatidyl Choline and Phosphatidyl Ethanolamine Biosynthesis
		10.9.2 Phosphatidylserine
		10.9.3 Phosphatidylinositol, Phosphatidylglycerol and Cardiolipin Biosynthesis
	10.10 Eicosanoids
		10.10.1 Characterstics of Eicosonaids
		10.10.2 Eicosanoid Synthesis
	10.11 Metabolic Disorder of Lipids: Disturbances in Lipid Metabolism
	Exercises
	Multiple Choice Questions
Chapter 11 : Metabolism of Amino Acids
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Overview of Nitrogen Metabolism
		11.2.1 Biologically Available Nitrogen Pool is Maintained by Nitrogen Cycle
	11.3 Nitrogen Balance
	11.4 Some Reactions Play Important Role in Biosynthesis of Amino Acids
		11.4.1 Metabolism of the Carbon Skeleton
	11.5 Metabolism of Ammonia
	11.6 Urea Cycle
	11.7 Biosynthesis of Amino Acids
		11.7.1 Glutamate and Aspartate
		11.7.2 Glucose–Alanine Cycle
		11.7.3 Proline Biosynthesis
		11.7.4 Arginine Biosynthesis
		11.7.5 Serine Biosynthesis
		11.7.6 Glycine Biosynthesis
		11.7.7 Cysteine Biosynthesis
		11.7.8 Biosynthesis of Six Essential and Three Nonessential Amino Acids are
Synthesized from Oxaloacetate and Pyruvate
		11.7.9 Biosynthesis of Tryprophan, Phenylalanine and Tyrosine
		11.7.10 Biosynthesis of Histidine
	11.8 Catabolism of Amino Acid
		11.8.1 Importance of One Carbon Pool in Amino Acid Catabolism
		11.8.2 Glutamic and Aspartatic Acid Catabolism
		11.8.3 Alanine Catabolism
		11.8.4 Arginine, Ornithine and Citrulline Catabolism
		11.8.5 Proline Catabolism
		11.8.6 Serine Catabolism
		11.8.7 Threonine Catabolism
		11.8.8 Glycine Catabolism
		11.8.9 Cysteine Catabolism
		11.8.10 Methionine Catabolism
		11.8.11 Valine, Leucine and Isoleucine Catabolism
		11.8.12 Phenylalanine and T yrosine Catabolism
		11.8.13 Lysine Catabolism
		11.8.14 Histidine Catabolism
		11.8.15 Tryptophan Catabolism
	11.9 Plant and Animal Pigments
		11.9.1 Plant Pigments
		11.9.2 Animal Pigments
	11.10 Metabolic Disorder of Amino Acids
	Exercises
	Multiple Choice Questions
Chapter 12 : Metabolism of Nucleic Acids
	12.1 Introduction to Nucleic Acids Metabolism
	12.2 Biosynthesis of Purine Nucleotide
		12.2.1 Biosynthesis of AMP and GMP from IMP
	12.3 Regulation of Purine Nucleotide Biosynthesis by Feedback Inhibition
	12.4 Biosynthesis of Pyrimidine Nucleotides
		12.4.1 Synthesis of Cytidine 5′–Triphosphate (CTP)
		12.4.2 Synthesis of TTP Thymidine 5′–Triphosphate
	12.5 Regulation of Pyrimidine Biosynthesis by Feedback Inhibition
	12.6 Catabolism of Purine Nucleotide
		12.6.1 Catabolism of GMP
	12.7 Catabolism of Pyrimidine Nucleotide
	12.8 Salvage Pathway
	12.9 Biosynthesis of Deoxyribonucleotides
	12.10 Formation of Deoxythymidylic Acid
	12.11 Regulation of Deoxyribonucleotide Biosynthesis
	12.12 Biosynthesis of Nucleotide Coenzymes
	12.13 Metabolic Disorder of Nucleic Acid
		12.13.1 Lesch–Nyhan Syndrome
		12.13.2 Symptoms of Hyperuricemia
		12.13.3 Xanthinuria and Xanthine Lithiasis
		12.13.4 Gout
		12.13.5 Characteristics of Gout
		12.13.6 Treatment of Gout
	Exercises
	Multiple Choice Questions
Chapter 13 : Enzymes and Coenzymes
	13.1 Introduction and Classification of Enzymes
	13.2 The Nature of Enzymes
		13.2.1 Environmental Effects
	13.3 Kinetics of Enzyme-Catalysed Reactions
		13.3.1 Michaelis–Menten Equation
	13.4 Inhibition of Enzymes
	13.5 Kinetic Aspects of Allosteric Enzymes
	13.6 Cofactors
	13.7 Isozymes
	13.8 Enzyme Mechanisms
	13.9 Activation of Enzymes
	Exercises
	Multiple Choice Questions
Chapter 14 : Immunology
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 General Processes of the Immune Response
		14.2.1 Cells Involved in the Immune Response
		14.2.2 Structure of Antibody (Immunoglobulins)
		14.2.3 The Role of Antibodies
	14.3 Antigenic Determinants on Immunoglobulins
		14.3.1 Isotypic Determinants
		14.3.2 Allotypic Determinants
		14.3.3 Idiotypic Determinants
	14.4 Diseases Related to the Complement System
	14.5 Complement Deficiencies
	14.6 Antigen–Antibody Reactions
		14.6.1 Production of Antibodies
	14.7 Complement
		14.7.1 Complement Cascade
		14.7.2 Complement System
		14.7.3 Alternative Pathway
		14.7.4 Classical Pathway
	14.8 Transplantation
		14.8.1 Autograft
		14.8.2 Isograft
		14.8.3 Allograft
		14.8.4 Xenograft
	14.9 Interferons
	14.10 Cytokines
	14.11 Tissue Typing
		14.11.1 Tissue Distribution of HLA Molecules
		14.11.2 Structure of HLA Molecules
		14.11.3 HLA Polymorphism
		14.11.4 Lymphocytotoxicity
	14.12 Analytical Techniques—Precipitation Reactions
		14.12.1 Immunoprecipitation in Solutions
		14.12.2 Immunoprecipitation in Gels
	14.13 Analytical Techniques—Competitive Binding Immunoassays
		14.13.1 Radioimmunoassay (RIA)
		14.13.2 Enzyme Immunoassay (EIA)
		14.13.3 Fluoro-Immunoassay
	Exercises
	Multiple Choice Questions
Chapter 15 : Vitamins and Minerals
	15.1 Introduction to Vitamins
		15.1.1 History of Vitamins
		15.1.2 Classification of Vitamins
	15.2 Fat Soluble Vitamin
		15.2.1 Vitamin A
		15.2.2 Vitamin D
		15.2.3 Vitamin E
		15.2.4 Vitamin K
	15.3 Water-Soluble Vitamins
		15.3.1 Thiamine (Vitamin B1)
		15.3.2 Riboflavin (Vitamin B2 or Vitamin G)
		15.3.3 Niacin (Vitamin B3 or Vitamin PP)
		15.3.4 Pantothenic Acid (Vitamin B5)
		15.3.5 Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6)
		15.3.6 Biotin (Vitamin B7 or Vitamin H)
		15.3.7 Folic Acid (Vitamin B9 or Vitamin M)
		15.3.8 Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)
		15.3.9 Vitamin C or L-Ascorbic Acid
	15.4 Minerals
		15.4.1 Sources of Minerals
		15.4.2 Macro Minerals
		15.4.3 Micronutrients or Trace Minerals
	Exercises
	Multiple Choice Questions
Chapter 16 : Photosynthesis
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Early Studies on Photosynthesis
		16.2.1 Light and Dark Reactions
		16.2.2 The Hill Reaction
		16.2.3 Photophosphorylation
	16.3 Photosynthetic Apparatus
	16.4 Absorption of Light by Chlorophyll
	16.5 The Supramolecular Complexes
		16.5.1 The Photosystem I Complex
		16.5.2 The Photosystem II Complex
	16.6 Energy Conservation Process or Photosynthetic Electron Transport Chain
	16.7 The CO2 Reduction (Calvin) Cycle
		16.7.1 Carboxylation Phase
		16.7.2 Reduction Phase
		16.7.3 Regeneration Phase
	16.8 The C4 – Pathway
		16.8.1 Mesophyll Cells
		16.8.2 Bundle Sheath Cells
	16.9 Photorespiration
	16.10 Crassulacean Acid Metabolism
	Exercises
	Multiple Choice Questions
Chapter 17 : Hormones
	17.1 IntroductIon
	17.2 Second Messengers
		17.2.1 Cyclic AMP
		17.2.2 Cyclic GMP as Second Messenger
		17.2.3 Phosphatidyl Inositol Biphosphate (PIP)
		17.2.4 Diacetyl Glycerol
		17.2.5 Calcium Ions
	17.3 Classification of Hormones
	17.4 Steroid Hormones
		17.4.1 The Adrenal Cortex
		17.4.2 Sex Hormones
	17.5 Peptide Hormones
		17.5.1 Pancreatic Hormones
		17.5.2 The Parathyroids
		17.5.3 The Pituitary Gland
		17.5.4 Gastrointestinal Hormones
		17.5.5 Renin (Hormonal Function of the Kidney)
	17.6 Amino Acid Derivatives
		17.6.1 The Thyroid Gland
		17.6.2 Calcitonin
		17.6.3 Adrenal Medulla
	17.7 Prostaglandins as Modulators of Hormone Action
	Exercises
	Multiple Choice Questions
Appendix
Glossary
Index