Behavioral Neuroscience

Cover
Endpapers
	Companion Website Access Instructions
	Companion Website Resources
Front Matter
	Copyright Page
	Dedication
	Brief Contents
	Contents
	Preface
		Acknowledgments
	Media and Supplements
Chapter 1 Behavioral Neuroscience: Scope and Outlook
	The Brain Is Full of Surprises
	What Is Behavioral Neuroscience?
	Five Viewpoints Explore the Biology of Behavior
		Behavior can be described according to different criteria
		We compare species to learn how the brain and behavior have evolved
		The body and behavior develop over the life span
		Biological mechanisms underlie all behavior
		Research can be applied to human problems
	Three Approaches Relate Brain and Behavior
	Neuroplasticity: Behavior Can Change the Brain
		Behavioral neuroscience and social psychology are related
	Behavioral Neuroscientists Use Several Levels of Analysis
	The Brain and Behavior Are Reciprocally Related
	Behavioral Neuroscience Contributes to Our Understanding of Human Disorders
	Animal Research Makes Vital Contributions
	The History of Research on the Brain and Behavior Begins in Antiquity
		Renaissance scientists began to understand brain anatomy
		The concept of localization of function arose in the nineteenth century
		Modern behavioral neuroscience arose in the twentieth century
		Consciousness is a thorny problem
	Visual Summary
PART I Biological Foundations of Behavior
Chapter 2 Functional Neuroanatomy: The Nervous System and Behavior
	Specialized Cells Make Up the Nervous System
		The neuron has four structural divisions specialized for information processing
		Neurons can be classified by shape, size, or function
		Information is received through synapses
		The axon integrates and then transmits information
		Glial cells support and enhance neural activity
	The Nervous System Consists of Central and Peripheral Divisions
		The peripheral nervous system has two divisions
		The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord
	The Brain Shows Regional Specialization of Functions
		The cerebral cortex performs complex cognitive processing
		Subcortical structures are involved in movement and the regulation of emotions
		The diencephalon directs sensory information and controls basic physiological functions
		The midbrain has sensory and motor components
		The cerebellum is attached to the pons and is crucial for motor coordination
		The medulla maintains vital basic body functions
		Behaviors and cognitive abilities are determined by functional connections between brain regions
	Specialized Support Systems Protect and Nourish the Brain
		The cerebral ventricles are chambers filled with fluid
		The brain has an elaborate vascular system
	Brain-Imaging Techniques Reveal the Structure and Function of the Living Human Brain
		Measurements of density can be used to map the structure of the brain
		Functional-imaging techniques map regional brain activity during behaviors
		Sophisticated imaging techniques are powerful tools requiring cautious interpretation
	Visual Summary
Chapter 3 Neurophysiology: The Generation, Transmission, 
and Integration of Neural Signals
	Electrical Signals Are the Vocabulary of the Nervous System
		A balance of electrochemical forces produces the resting membrane potential of neurons
		A threshold amount of depolarization triggers an action potential
		Ionic mechanisms underlie the action potential
		Action potentials are actively propagated along the axon
	Synapses Cause Graded, Local Changes in the Postsynaptic Membrane Potential
		Synapses can be excitatory or inhibitory
		Spatial summation and temporal summation integrate synaptic inputs
	Synaptic Transmission Requires a Sequence of Events
		Action potentials cause the release of transmitter molecules into the synaptic cleft
		Receptor molecules recognize transmitters
		Transmitters bind to receptors, gating ion channels
		The action of synaptic transmitters is stopped rapidly
		Several factors regulate neurotransmitter release
	Neurons and Synapses Combine to Make Circuits
	Gross Electrical Activity of the Brain Is Readily Detected
		Seizure disorders result from electrical storms in the brain
		Event-related potentials measure changes resulting from discrete stimuli
	Visual Summary
Chapter 4 The Chemistry of Behavior: Neurotransmitters and 
Neuropharmacology
	Synaptic Transmission Is a Complex Electrochemical Process
	Many Chemical Neurotransmitters Have Been Identified
	Neurotransmitter Systems Form a Complex Array in the Brain
		The most abundant excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters in the brain are amino acids
		Acetylcholine was the first neurotransmitter to be identified
		Five monoamines act as neurotransmitters
		Many peptides function as neurotransmitters
		Some neurotransmitters are gases
	The Effects of a Drug Depend on Its Site of Action and Dose
		Drugs fit like keys into molecular locks
		Drug-receptor interactions vary in specificity and activity
		Dose-response relationships reflect the potency and safety of drugs
		Repeated treatments may reduce the effectiveness of drugs
		Drugs are administered and eliminated in many different ways
	Drugs Affect Each Stage of Neural Conduction and Synaptic Transmission
		Some drugs alter presynaptic events
		Drugs may act postsynaptically
	Some Neuroactive Drugs Ease the Symptoms of Injury or Psychiatric Illness
		Antipsychotics relieve schizophrenia
		Antidepressants reduce chronic mood problems
		Anxiolytics combat anxiety
		Opiates potently relieve pain
	Some Neuroactive Drugs Are Used to Alter Conscious Experiences
		Cannabinoids have a wide array of effects
		Stimulants increase the activity of the nervous system
		Alcohol acts as both a stimulant and a depressant
		Hallucinogenic and dissociative drugs alter sensory perception
	Drug Abuse and Addiction Are Widespread Problems
		Several perspectives help us understand drug abuse
		People differ in their vulnerability to drug abuse
		Drug abuse and dependence can be prevented or treated in multiple ways
	Visual Summary
Chapter 5 Hormones and the Brain
	Hormones Have Many Actions in the Body
		The scientific method established the importance of testicular hormones
		Organisms use several types of chemical communication
		Hormonal actions can be organized according to general principles
		Neuroendocrine cells blend neuronal and endocrine functions
		Hormones can be classified by chemical structure
	Hormones Have a Variety of Cellular Actions
		Hormones affect cells by influencing their growth and activity
		Hormones initiate actions by binding to receptor molecules
		Feedback control mechanisms regulate the secretion of hormones
	Each Endocrine Gland Secretes Specific Hormones
		The pituitary gland releases many important hormones
		Hypothalamic releasing hormones govern the anterior pituitary
		Two divisions of the adrenal gland produce hormones
		Thyroid hormones regulate growth and metabolism
		The gonads produce steroid hormones, regulating reproduction
		The pineal gland secretes melatonin
	Hormones Affect Behavior in Many Different Ways
		Hormones can affect social behavior
	Hormonal and Neural Systems Interact to Produce Integrated Responses
	Visual Summary
PART II Evolution and Development of the Nervous System
Chapter 6 Evolution of the Brain and Behavior
	How Did the Enormous Variety of Species Arise on Earth?
		Natural selection drives evolution
		Evolution may converge upon similar solutions
		Modern evolutionary theory combines natural selection and genetics
		How closely related are two species?
		Newer methods aid in classifying animals and inferring evolution
	Why Should We Study Other Species?
		Complicated lives require complicated brains
		Simpler invertebrate nervous systems provide models of neural function
	All Vertebrate Brains Share the Same Basic Structures
		The main brain structures are the same in all mammals
		All vertebrate nervous systems share certain main features but differ in others
	The Evolution of Vertebrate Brains Reflects Changes in Behavior
		Present-day animals and fossils reveal evolution of the brain
		Through evolution, vertebrate brains have changed in both size and organization
		Brain size evolved independently in multiple lineages
	Many Factors Led to the Rapid Evolution of a Large Cortex in Primates
		Hominin brains enlarged rapidly in our recent evolution
		Negative and positive selection pressures affected hominin brain size
		Brain size predicts success in adapting to a novel environment
		Sexual selection may have contributed to hominin brain expansion
		Primate species differ in gene expression
	Evolution Continues Today
	Visual Summary
Chapter 7 Life-Span Development of the Brain and Behavior
	Growth and Development of the Brain Are Orderly Processes
	Development of the Nervous System Can Be Divided into Six Distinct Stages
		Cell proliferation produces cells that become neurons or glial cells
		New nerve cells migrate
		Cells in newly formed brain regions differentiate into neurons
		The axons and dendrites of young neurons grow extensively and form synapses
		The death of many neurons is a normal part of development
		Neurotrophic factors allow neurons to survive and grow
		Synaptic connections are refined by synapse rearrangement
		Glial cells provide myelin, which is vital for brain function
	Developmental Disorders of the Brain Impair Behavior
		Environmental factors may limit brain development
		Genes are important intrinsic factors influencing brain development
	Genes Interact with Experience to Guide Brain Development
		Experience regulates gene expression in the developing and mature brain
	Experience Is an Important Influence on Brain Development
		Visual deprivation can lead to blindness
		Early exposure to visual patterns helps fine-tune connections in the visual system
	The Brain Continues to Change as We Grow Older
		Memory impairment correlates with hippocampal shrinkage during aging
		Alzheimer’s disease is associated with a decline in cerebral metabolism
	Visual Summary
PART III
 Perception and Action
Chapter 8 
General Principles of Sensory Processing, Touch, and Pain
	Sensory Receptor Organs Detect Energy or Substances
		Sensory systems of particular animals have restricted ranges of responsiveness
	What Type of Stimulus Was That?
	Sensory Processing Begins in Receptor Cells
		The initial stage of sensory processing is a change in electrical potential in receptor cells
	Sensory Information Processing Is Selective and Analytical
		Coding: Sensory events are represented by action potentials
		Adaptation: Receptor response can decline even if the stimulus is maintained
		Suppression: Sometimes we need receptors to be quiet
		Pathways: Successive levels of the nervous system process sensory information
		Receptive fields: What turns on this particular receptor cell?
		Attention: How do we notice some stimuli but not others?
		Sensory systems influence one another
	Skin Is a Complex Organ That Contains a Variety of Sensory Receptors
	The Dorsal Column System Carries Somatosensory Information from the Skin to the Brain
		Plasticity in cortical maps: Receptive fields can be changed by experience
	Human Pain Can Be Measured
		Peripheral receptors get the initial message
		Spinal pathways transmit pain information
		The reign of pain is mainly in the brain
	Social Rejection Hurts Too
	Pain Can Be Difficult to Control
		Different strategies can alleviate pain
	Visual Summary
Chapter 9 Hearing, Vestibular Perception, Taste, and Smell
	Pressure Waves in the Air Are Perceived as Sound
		The external ear captures, focuses, and filters sound
		The middle ear concentrates sound energies
		The cochlea converts vibrational energy into waves of fluid
		Active mechanical processes in the cochlea enhance frequency discrimination
	Auditory Signals Run from Cochlea to Cortex
	Pitch Information Is Encoded in Two Complementary Ways
	Brainstem Auditory Systems Are Specialized for Localizing Sounds
	The Auditory Cortex Processes Complex Sounds
		Experience affects auditory perception and the auditory pathways
	Hearing Loss Is a Major Disorder of the Nervous System
		There are three main causes of hearing loss and deafness
		Treatments for deafness focus on replacing missing stimulation
	An Inner Ear System Senses Gravity and Acceleration
	Nerve Fibers from the Vestibular Portion of the Vestibulocochlear Nerve (VIII) Synapse in the Brainstem
	Some Forms of Vestibular Excitation Produce Motion Sickness
	Chemicals in Foods Are Perceived as Five Basic Tastes
		Tastes excite specialized receptor cells on the tongue
		Different cellular processes transduce the basic tastes
		Taste information is transmitted to several parts of the brain
	Chemicals in the Air Elicit Odor Sensations
		The sense of smell starts with receptor neurons in the nose
		Odorants excite specialized receptor molecules on olfactory receptor neurons
		Olfactory axons connect with the olfactory bulb, which sends its output to several brain regions
		Many vertebrates possess a vomeronasal system
	Visual Summary
Chapter 10 Vision: From Eye to Brain
	The Visual System Extends from the Eye to the Brain
		The vertebrate eye acts in some ways like a camera
		Visual processing begins in the retina
		Photoreceptors transduce light into chemical reactions
		Different mechanisms enable the eyes to work over a wide range of light intensities
		Acuity is best in foveal vision
		Brightness is created by the visual system
	Neural Signals Travel from the Retina to Several Brain Regions
		The retina projects to the brain in a topographic fashion
	Neurons at Different Levels of the Visual System Have Very Different Receptive Fields
		Photoreceptors excite some retinal neurons and inhibit others
		Neurons in the retina and the LGN have concentric receptive fields
		Neurons in the visual cortex have varied and complicated receptive fields
		Most cells in the primary visual cortex are tuned to particular spatial frequencies
		Area V1 is involved in the formation of mental images
		Neurons in the visual cortex beyond area V1 have complex receptive fields and contribute to the identification of forms
	Area V1 Is Organized in Columns
	Color Vision Depends on Special Channels from the Retinal Cones through Cortical Area V4
		Color is created by the visual system
		Color perception requires receptor cells that differ in their sensitivities to different wavelengths
		Some retinal ganglion cells and parvocellular LGN cells show spectral opponency
		Some visual cortical cells and regions appear to be specialized for color perception
	Perception of Visual Motion Is Analyzed by a Special System That Includes Cortical Area V5
	The Many Cortical Visual Areas Are Organized into Two Major Streams
		The anterior part of the dorsal stream includes mirror neurons
	Visual Neuroscience Can Be Applied to Alleviate Some Visual Deficiencies
		Impairment of vision often can be prevented or reduced
		Increased exercise can restore function to a previously deprived or neglected eye
	Visual Summary
Chapter 11 Motor Control and Plasticity
	The Behavioral View Considers Reflexes versus Plans
		Motor behavior can be analyzed and measured in a variety of ways
	The Control Systems View Considers Accuracy versus Speed
	The Neuroscience View Reveals Hierarchical Systems
		The skeletal system enables particular movements and precludes others
		Muscles control the actions of the skeletal system
		Neural messages reach muscle fibers at the neuromuscular junction
		Sensory feedback from muscles, tendons, and joints monitors movements
	The Spinal Cord Is a Crucial Link in Controlling Body Movement
		Spinal reflexes mediate “automatic” responses
		Spinal cord injuries cause severe motor impairments
		Motor neuron pathology leads to motor impairments and death
	Pathways from the Brain Control Different Aspects of Movements
		Primary motor cortex is an executive motor control mechanism—and more
		Nonprimary motor cortex aids complex behaviors
		Mirror neurons in premotor cortex track movements in others
	Extrapyramidal Systems Also Modulate Motor Commands
		The basal ganglia modulate movements
		The cerebellum affects programs, coordination, and learning of acts
		The cerebellum and the basal ganglia contribute differently to the modulation of motor functions
	Brain Disorders Can Disrupt Movement
		Cerebral cortex pathology causes some motor impairments
		In Parkinson’s disease the death of dopaminergic neurons alters activity of the basal ganglia
		Huntington’s disease is characterized by excessive movement caused by deterioration of the basal ganglia
		Cerebellar damage causes many types of impairment
	Visual Summary
PART IV Regulation and Behavior
Chapter 12 Sex: Evolutionary, Hormonal, and Neural Bases
	Reproductive Behavior Can Be Divided into Four Stages
		Copulation brings gametes together
		Gonadal steroids activate sexual behavior
	The Neural Circuitry of the Brain Regulates Reproductive Behavior
		Estrogens and progesterone regulate a lordosis circuit that spans from brain to muscle
		Androgens act on a neural system for male reproductive behavior
	Pheromones Guide Reproductive Behavior in Many Species
	The Hallmark of Human Sexual Behavior Is Diversity
		Hormones play only a permissive role in human sexual behavior
	For Many Vertebrates, Parental Care Determines Offspring Survival
	Sex Determination and Sexual Differentiation Occur Early in Development
		Gonadal hormones direct sexual differentiation of the body
		Changes in the sequence of sexual differentiation result in predictable changes in development
		Dysfunctional androgen receptors can block male masculinization
		Some people seem to change sex at puberty
	How Should We Define Gender— by Genes, Gonads, Genitals, or the Brain?
	Gonadal Hormones Direct Sexual Differentiation of the Brain and Behavior
		Early testicular secretions result in masculine behavior in adulthood
		The estrogenic metabolites of testosterone masculinize the nervous system and behavior of rodents
		Several regions of the nervous system differ between males and females
		Environmental influences also affect sexual differentiation of the nervous system
	Do Fetal Hormones Masculinize Human Behaviors in Adulthood?
		What determines a person’s sexual orientation?
	Visual Summary
Chapter 13 Homeostasis: Active Regulation of the Internal Environment
	Homeostasis Maintains a Consistent Internal Environment: The Example of Thermoregulation
		Homeostatic systems share several key features
	Two Internal Cues Trigger Thirst
		Osmotic thirst is triggered by increased saltiness of the extracellular fluid
		Homeostatic regulation of salt is required for effective regulation of water
		Hypovolemic thirst is triggered by a loss of water volume
		We don’t stop drinking just because the throat and mouth are wet
	Nutrient Regulation Helps Prepare for Future Needs
		Most of our food is used to provide us with energy
		We can store energy for future needs
	Insulin Is Crucial for the Regulation of Body Metabolism
		Despite their importance, neither insulin nor glucose is the sole signal for hunger or satiety
	The Hypothalamus Coordinates Multiple Systems That Control Hunger
		Multiple peripheral signals are integrated by a hypothalamic appetite network
		Second-order hypothalamic neurons integrate appetite signals
		Other systems also play a role in hunger and satiety
	Obesity Is Difficult to Treat
	Eating Disorders Are Life-Threatening
	Visual Summary
Chapter 14 Biological Rhythms, Sleep, and Dreaming
	Many Animals Show Daily Rhythms in Activity
		Circadian rhythms are generated by an endogenous clock
		Circadian rhythms allow animals to anticipate changes in the environment
	The Hypothalamus Houses a Circadian Clock
		Transplants prove that the SCN produces a circadian rhythm
		In mammals, light information from the eyes reaches the SCN directly
		Circadian rhythms have been genetically dissected in flies and mice
	Some Biological Rhythms Are Longer or Shorter than a Day
	Human Sleep Exhibits Different Stages
		How much do we sleep, and when?
		We do our most vivid dreaming during REM sleep
	Different Species Provide Clues about the Evolution of Sleep
		REM sleep evolved in some vertebrates
		Species differ in their patterns and types of sleep
	Our Sleep Patterns Change across the Life Span
		Mammals sleep more during infancy than in adulthood
		Most people sleep appreciably less as they age
	Manipulating Sleep Reveals an Underlying Structure
		Sleep deprivation predictably alters sleep patterns
	What Are the Biological Functions of Sleep?
		Sleep conserves energy
		Sleep enforces niche adaptation
		Sleep restores the body and brain
		Sleep aids memory consolidation
		Some humans sleep remarkably little, yet function normally
	At Least Four Interacting Neural Systems Underlie Sleep
		The forebrain generates slow-wave sleep
		The reticular formation wakes up the forebrain
		The pons triggers REM sleep
		A hypothalamic sleep center was revealed by the study of narcolepsy
	Sleep Disorders Can Be Serious, Even Life-Threatening
		Some minor dysfunctions are associated with sleep
		Insomniacs have trouble falling asleep or staying asleep
		Although many drugs affect sleep, there is no perfect sleeping pill
	Visual Summary
PART V Emotions and Mental Disorders
Chapter 15 Emotions, Aggression, and Stress
	What Are Emotions?
	Broad Theories of Emotion Emphasize Bodily Responses
		Do emotions cause bodily changes, or vice versa?
		Stanley Schachter proposed a cognitive interpretation of stimuli and visceral states
	Emotions from the Evolutionary Viewpoint
		How may emotion and emotional displays have evolved?
		Individuals differ in their emotional responsiveness
	How Many Emotions Do We Experience?
		Facial expressions have complex functions in communication
		Facial expressions are mediated by muscles, cranial nerves, and CNS pathways
	Do Distinct Brain Circuits Mediate Different Emotions?
		Electrical stimulation of the brain can produce emotional effects
		Brain lesions affect emotions
		Fear is mediated by circuitry that includes the amygdala
		Different emotions activate different regions of the human brain
	Neural Circuitry, Hormones, and Synaptic Transmitters Mediate Violence and Aggression
		What is aggression?
		Androgens seem to increase aggression
		Aggression has several neurochemical correlates
		The biopsychology of human violence is a topic of controversy
	Stress Activates Many Bodily Responses
		The stress response has multiple stages
		Individual differences in the stress response
	Stress and Emotions Affect the Immune System
		Emotions and stress influence cardiac function
		Emotions and stress influence the immune system
		Why does stress suppress the immune system?
	Visual Summary
Chapter 16 Psychopathology: Biological Basis of Behavioral Disorders
	The Toll of Psychiatric Disorders Is Huge
	Schizophrenia Is the Major Neurobiological Challenge in Psychiatry
		Schizophrenia is characterized by an unusual array of symptoms
		Schizophrenia has a heritable component
		The brains of some patients with schizophrenia show structural and functional changes
		Antipsychotic medications revolutionized the treatment of schizophrenia
		An integrative psychobiological model of schizophrenia emphasizes the interaction of multiple factors
		Bipolar disorder has a lot in common with schizophrenia
	Mood Disorders Are a Major Psychiatric Category
		Depression is the most prevalent mood disorder
		Inheritance is an important determinant of depression
		The brain changes with depression
		A wide variety of treatments are available for depression
		The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis is involved in depression
		Why do more females than males suffer from depression?
		Sleep characteristics change in affective disorders
		Scientists are still searching for animal models of depression
	There Are Several Types of Anxiety Disorders
		Drug treatment of anxiety provides clues to the mechanisms of this disorder
		In posttraumatic stress disorder, horrible memories won’t go away
		In obsessive-compulsive disorder, thoughts and acts keep repeating
	Visual Summary
PART VI
Cognitive Neuroscience
Chapter 17
Learning and Memory
	There Are Several Kinds of Learning and Memory
		For patient H.M., the present vanished into oblivion
		Medial temporal lobe structures are crucial for declarative memory
		Damage to the medial diencephalon can also cause amnesia
		The cortex is essential for long-term storage of memories
	Different Forms of Nondeclarative Memory Involve Different Brain Regions
		Specific functions depend on different forms of nondeclarative memory
		Medial temporal mechanisms keep track of positions in spatial, temporal, and social networks
	Successive Processes Capture, Store, and Retrieve Information in the Brain
		A variety of brain regions are involved in different attributes of working memory
		Brain regions involved in learning and memory: A summary
		STM and LTM involve several different processes
	Memory Storage Requires Physical Changes in the Brain
		Plastic changes at synapses can be physiological or structural
		Varied experiences and learning cause the brain to change and grow
	Invertebrate Nervous Systems Show Plasticity
	Some Simple Learning in Mammals Relies on Circuits in the Cerebellum
	Synaptic Plasticity Can Be Measured in Simple Hippocampal Circuits
		LTP occurs at several sites in the hippocampal formation
		NMDA receptors and AMPA receptors collaborate in LTP
		Is LTP a mechanism of memory formation?
	In the Adult Brain, Newly Born Neurons May Aid Learning
	Learning and Memory Change as We Age
		Age-related impairments of memory have several causes
		Can the effects of aging on memory be prevented or alleviated?
	Visual Summary
Chapter 18
Attention and Higher Cognition
	Attention Selects Stimuli for Processing
		There are limits on attention
	Attention Is Deployed in Several Different Ways
		We can decide where to direct our attention
		Some stimuli grab our attention
		Attention helps us to search a cluttered world for specific patterns
	Attention Affects the Functioning of the Brain
		Distinctive patterns of brain electrical activity mark shifts of attention
		Neuroimaging confirms that the anatomical foci of attention show augmented processing
		Attention alters the functioning of individual neurons
	A Network of Brain Sites Creates and Directs Attention
		The superior colliculus guides attentional eye movements
		The pulvinar drives shifts of attention
		Several cortical areas are crucial for generating and directing attention
		Multiple brain regions collaborate in networks that govern attention
	Disorders Provide Clues about the Organization of Attention
		Neglect of one side of the body and space can result from parietal lobe injury
		In Bálint’s syndrome, narrowed attention combines with spatial disorientation
		Difficulty with sustained attention can sometimes be relieved with stimulants
	Consciousness Is a Mysterious Product of the Brain
		Which brain regions are active when we are conscious?
		Some aspects of consciousness are easier to study than others
		The frontal lobes are a crucial part of the executive system that guides our thoughts, feelings, and choices
		Frontal lobe injury in humans leads to emotional, motor, and cognitive changes
		Frontal mechanisms sift alternatives, evaluate risk and reward, and guide decisions accordingly
	Visual Summary
Chapter 19
Language and Lateralization
	The Left Brain Is Different from the Right Brain
		Disconnection of the cerebral hemispheres reveals their individual specializations
		The two hemispheres process information differently in most humans
		The left and right hemispheres differ in their auditory specializations
		Handedness is associated with cerebral lateralization
		How did hemispheric asymmetry and specialization evolve?
	Right-Hemisphere Damage Impairs Spatial Cognition
		In prosopagnosia, faces are unrecognizable
	Language Disorders Result from Region-Specific Brain Damage
		Lesions of a left anterior speech zone cause nonfluent (or Broca’s) aphasia
		Lesions of a left posterior speech zone cause fluent (or Wernicke’s) aphasia
		Widespread left-hemisphere damage can obliterate language capabilities
	Competing Models Describe the Left-Hemisphere Language System
	Brain Mapping Provides Information about the Organization of Language in the Brain
		Cortical stimulation mapping provides precise identification of language areas
		Functional neuroimaging tracks activity in the brain’s language zones
	Language Has Both Learned and Unlearned Components
		Nonhuman primates engage in elaborate vocal behavior
	Reading Skills Are Difficult to Acquire and Frequently Impaired
		Brain damage may cause specific impairments in reading
		Some people struggle to read throughout their lives
	Stabilization and Reorganization Are Crucial for Recovery of Function
		The brain regrows and reorganizes anatomically after being injured
		Rehabilitation and retraining can help recovery from brain and spinal cord injury
	Visual Summary
Appendix:
Molecular Biology: Basic Concepts and Important Techniques
	Genes Carry Information That Encodes the Synthesis of Proteins
		Genetic information is stored in molecules of DNA
		DNA is transcribed to produce messenger RNA
		RNA molecules direct the formation of protein molecules
	Molecular Biologists Have Craftily Enslaved Microorganisms and Enzymes
		Southern blots identify particular genes
		Northern blots identify particular mRNA transcripts
		In situ hybridization localizes mRNA transcripts within specific cells
		Western blots identify particular proteins
		Antibodies can also tell us which cells possess a particular protein
	Gene Editing Enables the Creation of Model Organisms
Glossary
Illustration Credits
References
Author Index
Subject Index
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