Behavioral Neuroscience

Cover......Page 1
Title......Page 7
Copyright......Page 8
Preface......Page 19
Media and Supplements......Page 23
Brief Contents......Page 10
Contents......Page 11
1. Behavioral Neuroscience: Scope and Outlook......Page 27
What Is Behavioral Neuroscience?......Page 28
Five Viewpoints Explore the Biology of Behavior......Page 29
The body and behavior develop over the life span......Page 30
Three Approaches Relate Brain and Behavior......Page 32
Behavioral neuroscience and social psychology are related......Page 34
Behavioral Neuroscientists Use Several Levels of Analysis......Page 36
The Brain and Behavior Are Reciprocally Related......Page 37
Behavioral Neuroscience Contributes to Our Understanding of Human Disorders......Page 38
Animal Research Makes Vital Contributions......Page 39
Renaissance scientists began to understand brain anatomy......Page 40
The concept of localization of function arose in the nineteenth century......Page 42
Consciousness is a thorny problem......Page 44
Visual Summary......Page 47
PART I  Biological Foundations of Behavior......Page 49
2. Functional Neuroanatomy: The Nervous System and Behavior......Page 51
The neuron has four structural divisions specialized for information processing......Page 52
Neurons can be classified by shape, size, or function......Page 53
Information is received through synapses......Page 54
The axon integrates and then transmits information......Page 58
Glial cells support and enhance neural activity......Page 59
The peripheral nervous system has two divisions......Page 62
The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord......Page 66
The cerebral cortex performs complex cognitive processing......Page 71
Subcortical structures are involved in movement and the regulation of emotions......Page 72
The cerebellum is attached to the pons and is crucial for motor coordination......Page 73
Behaviors and cognitive abilities are determined by functional connections between brain regions......Page 74
The cerebral ventricles are chambers filled with fluid......Page 75
The brain has an elaborate vascular system......Page 76
Brain-Imaging Techniques Reveal the Structure and Function of the Living Human Brain......Page 77
Measurements of density can be used to map the structure of the brain......Page 78
Functional-imaging techniques map regional brain activity during behaviors......Page 79
Sophisticated imaging techniques are powerful tools requiring cautious interpretation......Page 81
Visual Summary......Page 84
3. Neurophysiology: The Generation, Transmission,  and Integration of Neural Signals......Page 87
A balance of electrochemical forces produces the resting membrane potential of neurons......Page 88
A threshold amount of depolarization triggers an action potential......Page 92
Ionic mechanisms underlie the action potential......Page 94
Action potentials are actively propagated along the axon......Page 95
Synapses Cause Graded, Local Changes in the Postsynaptic Membrane Potential......Page 100
Synapses can be excitatory or inhibitory......Page 101
Spatial summation and temporal summation integrate synaptic inputs......Page 102
Synaptic Transmission Requires a Sequence of Events......Page 105
Receptor molecules recognize transmitters......Page 106
Transmitters bind to receptors, gating ion channels......Page 109
Several factors regulate neurotransmitter release......Page 110
Neurons and Synapses Combine to Make Circuits......Page 112
Seizure disorders result from electrical storms in the brain......Page 114
Event-related potentials measure changes resulting from discrete stimuli......Page 116
Visual Summary......Page 119
4. The Chemistry of Behavior: Neurotransmitters and  Neuropharmacology......Page 121
Synaptic Transmission Is a Complex Electrochemical Process......Page 122
Many Chemical Neurotransmitters Have Been Identified......Page 124
The most abundant excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters in the brain are amino acids......Page 125
Acetylcholine was the first neurotransmitter to be identified......Page 126
Five monoamines act as neurotransmitters......Page 127
The Effects of a Drug Depend on Its Site of Action and Dose......Page 129
Drugs fit like keys into molecular locks......Page 130
Dose-response relationships reflect the potency and safety of drugs......Page 131
Repeated treatments may reduce the effectiveness of drugs......Page 132
Drugs are administered and eliminated in many different ways......Page 133
Some drugs alter presynaptic events......Page 135
Drugs may act postsynaptically......Page 137
Antipsychotics relieve schizophrenia......Page 138
Anxiolytics combat anxiety......Page 139
Opiates potently relieve pain......Page 140
Cannabinoids have a wide array of effects......Page 141
Stimulants increase the activity of the nervous system......Page 142
Alcohol acts as both a stimulant and a depressant......Page 144
Hallucinogenic and dissociative drugs alter sensory perception......Page 145
Drug Abuse and Addiction Are Widespread Problems......Page 147
Several perspectives help us understand drug abuse......Page 148
Drug abuse and dependence can be prevented or treated in multiple ways......Page 152
Visual Summary
......Page 155
5. Hormones and the Brain......Page 157
Hormones Have Many Actions in the Body......Page 158
The scientific method established the importance of testicular hormones......Page 159
Organisms use several types of chemical communication......Page 160
Neuroendocrine cells blend neuronal and endocrine functions......Page 161
Hormones can be classified by chemical structure......Page 162
Hormones affect cells by influencing their growth and activity......Page 163
Hormones initiate actions by binding to receptor molecules......Page 164
Each Endocrine Gland Secretes Specific Hormones......Page 169
The pituitary gland releases many important hormones......Page 170
Hypothalamic releasing hormones govern the anterior pituitary......Page 172
Two divisions of the adrenal gland produce hormones......Page 175
Thyroid hormones regulate growth and metabolism......Page 176
The gonads produce steroid hormones, regulating reproduction......Page 177
The pineal gland secretes melatonin......Page 180
Hormones can affect social behavior......Page 181
Hormonal and Neural Systems Interact to Produce Integrated Responses......Page 182
Visual Summary......Page 185
PART II  Evolution and Development of the Nervous System......Page 187
6. Evolution of the Brain and Behavior......Page 189
Natural selection drives evolution......Page 190
Modern evolutionary theory combines natural selection and genetics......Page 191
How closely related are two species?......Page 192
Newer methods aid in classifying animals and inferring evolution......Page 193
Why Should We Study Other Species?......Page 194
Complicated lives require complicated brains......Page 196
Simpler invertebrate nervous systems provide models of neural function......Page 197
The main brain structures are the same in all mammals......Page 198
All vertebrate nervous systems share certain main features but differ in others......Page 200
Present-day animals and fossils reveal evolution of the brain......Page 201
Through evolution, vertebrate brains have changed in both size and organization......Page 202
Brain size evolved independently in multiple lineages......Page 203
Hominin brains enlarged rapidly in our recent evolution......Page 206
Negative and positive selection pressures affected hominin brain size......Page 207
Sexual selection may have contributed to hominin brain expansion......Page 209
Primate species differ in gene expression......Page 210
Evolution Continues Today......Page 212
Visual Summary
......Page 216
7. Life-Span Development of the Brain and Behavior......Page 219
Cell proliferation produces cells that become neurons or glial cells......Page 221
New nerve cells migrate......Page 224
Cells in newly formed brain regions differentiate into neurons......Page 226
The axons and dendrites of young neurons grow extensively and form synapses......Page 227
The death of many neurons is a normal part of development......Page 228
Neurotrophic factors allow neurons to survive and grow......Page 230
Synaptic connections are refined by synapse rearrangement......Page 231
Glial cells provide myelin, which is vital for brain function......Page 234
Genes are important intrinsic factors influencing brain development......Page 236
Experience regulates gene expression in the developing and mature brain......Page 240
Visual deprivation can lead to blindness......Page 243
Early exposure to visual patterns helps fine-tune connections in the visual system......Page 244
Memory impairment correlates with hippocampal shrinkage during aging......Page 246
Alzheimer’s disease is associated with a decline in cerebral metabolism......Page 247
Visual Summary
......Page 252
PART III   Perception and Action......Page 253
8.  General Principles of Sensory Processing, Touch, and Pain......Page 255
Sensory Receptor Organs Detect Energy or Substances......Page 256
Sensory systems of particular animals have restricted ranges of responsiveness......Page 257
Sensory Processing Begins in Receptor Cells......Page 258
The initial stage of sensory processing is a change in electrical potential in receptor cells......Page 259
Sensory Information Processing Is Selective and Analytical......Page 260
Coding: Sensory events are represented by action potentials......Page 261
Suppression: Sometimes we need receptors to be quiet......Page 262
Pathways: Successive levels of the nervous system process sensory information......Page 263
Receptive fields: What turns on this particular receptor cell?......Page 264
Attention: How do we notice some stimuli but not others?......Page 265
Sensory systems influence one another......Page 267
Skin Is a Complex Organ That Contains a Variety of Sensory Receptors......Page 268
The Dorsal Column System Carries Somatosensory Information from the Skin to the Brain......Page 271
Plasticity in cortical maps: Receptive fields can be changed by experience......Page 272
Human Pain Can Be Measured......Page 274
Peripheral receptors get the initial message......Page 275
Spinal pathways transmit pain information......Page 278
The reign of pain is mainly in the brain......Page 279
Social Rejection Hurts Too......Page 280
Different strategies can alleviate pain......Page 281
Visual Summary
......Page 287
9. Hearing, Vestibular Perception, Taste, and Smell......Page 289
Pressure Waves in the Air Are Perceived as Sound......Page 290
The external ear captures, focuses, and filters sound......Page 291
The middle ear concentrates sound energies......Page 292
The cochlea converts vibrational energy into waves of fluid......Page 293
Active mechanical processes in the cochlea enhance frequency discrimination......Page 296
Auditory Signals Run from Cochlea to Cortex......Page 297
Pitch Information Is Encoded in Two Complementary Ways......Page 299
Brainstem Auditory Systems Are Specialized for Localizing Sounds......Page 300
Experience affects auditory perception and the auditory pathways......Page 303
There are three main causes of hearing loss and deafness......Page 305
Treatments for deafness focus on replacing missing stimulation......Page 307
An Inner Ear System Senses Gravity and Acceleration......Page 309
Nerve Fibers from the Vestibular Portion of the Vestibulocochlear Nerve (VIII) Synapse in the Brainstem......Page 310
Some Forms of Vestibular Excitation Produce Motion Sickness......Page 311
Tastes excite specialized receptor cells on the tongue......Page 312
Different cellular processes transduce the basic tastes......Page 313
Taste information is transmitted to several parts of the brain......Page 316
The sense of smell starts with receptor neurons in the nose......Page 317
Odorants excite specialized receptor molecules on olfactory receptor neurons......Page 318
Olfactory axons connect with the olfactory bulb, which sends its output to several brain regions......Page 320
Many vertebrates possess a vomeronasal system......Page 321
Visual Summary
......Page 324
The Visual System Extends from the Eye to the Brain......Page 327
Visual processing begins in the retina......Page 328
Photoreceptors transduce light into chemical reactions......Page 330
Different mechanisms enable the eyes to work over a wide range of light intensities......Page 332
Acuity is best in foveal vision......Page 333
Brightness is created by the visual system......Page 334
Neural Signals Travel from the Retina to Several Brain Regions......Page 335
The retina projects to the brain in a topographic fashion......Page 337
Photoreceptors excite some retinal neurons and inhibit others......Page 339
Neurons in the retina and the LGN have concentric receptive fields......Page 340
Neurons in the visual cortex have varied and complicated receptive fields......Page 341
Most cells in the primary visual cortex are tuned to particular spatial frequencies......Page 343
Neurons in the visual cortex beyond area V1 have complex receptive fields and contribute to the identification of forms......Page 345
Area V1 Is Organized in Columns......Page 347
Color perception requires receptor cells that differ in their sensitivities to different wavelengths......Page 349
Some retinal ganglion cells and parvocellular LGN cells show spectral opponency......Page 352
Some visual cortical cells and regions appear to be specialized for color perception......Page 353
The Many Cortical Visual Areas Are Organized into Two Major Streams......Page 354
Impairment of vision often can be prevented or reduced......Page 356
Increased exercise can restore function to a previously deprived or neglected eye......Page 357
Visual Summary
......Page 360
The Behavioral View Considers Reflexes versus Plans......Page 363
The Control Systems View Considers Accuracy versus Speed......Page 364
The skeletal system enables particular movements and precludes others......Page 366
Muscles control the actions of the skeletal system......Page 367
Neural messages reach muscle fibers at the neuromuscular junction......Page 369
Sensory feedback from muscles, tendons, and joints monitors movements......Page 371
Spinal reflexes mediate “automatic” responses......Page 373
Spinal cord injuries cause severe motor impairments......Page 374
Pathways from the Brain Control Different Aspects of Movements......Page 376
Primary motor cortex is an executive motor control mechanism—and more......Page 377
Nonprimary motor cortex aids complex behaviors......Page 382
Mirror neurons in premotor cortex track movements in others......Page 383
The basal ganglia modulate movements......Page 384
The cerebellum and the basal ganglia contribute differently to the modulation of motor functions......Page 385
Cerebral cortex pathology causes some motor impairments......Page 386
In Parkinson’s disease the death of dopaminergic neurons alters activity of the basal ganglia......Page 387
Huntington’s disease is characterized by excessive movement caused by deterioration of the basal ganglia......Page 390
Cerebellar damage causes many types of impairment......Page 391
Visual Summary
......Page 394
PART IV  Regulation and Behavior......Page 395
12. Sex: Evolutionary, Hormonal, and Neural Bases......Page 397
Reproductive Behavior Can Be Divided into Four Stages......Page 398
Copulation brings gametes together......Page 400
Gonadal steroids activate sexual behavior......Page 401
Androgens act on a neural system for male reproductive behavior......Page 402
Pheromones Guide Reproductive Behavior in Many Species......Page 404
The Hallmark of Human Sexual Behavior Is Diversity......Page 405
Hormones play only a permissive role in human sexual behavior......Page 407
For Many Vertebrates, Parental Care Determines Offspring Survival......Page 408
Sex Determination and Sexual Differentiation Occur Early in Development......Page 409
Gonadal hormones direct sexual differentiation of the body......Page 410
Dysfunctional androgen receptors can block male masculinization......Page 412
Some people seem to change sex at puberty......Page 413
Gonadal Hormones Direct Sexual Differentiation of the Brain and Behavior......Page 414
Early testicular secretions result in masculine behavior in adulthood......Page 415
The estrogenic metabolites of testosterone masculinize the nervous system and behavior of rodents......Page 416
Several regions of the nervous system differ between males and females......Page 418
Environmental influences also affect sexual differentiation of the nervous system......Page 420
Do Fetal Hormones Masculinize Human Behaviors in Adulthood?......Page 421
What determines a person’s sexual orientation?......Page 423
Visual Summary
......Page 427
Homeostasis Maintains a Consistent Internal Environment: The Example of Thermoregulation......Page 429
Homeostatic systems share several key features......Page 430
Osmotic thirst is triggered by increased saltiness of the extracellular fluid......Page 436
Homeostatic regulation of salt is required for effective regulation of water......Page 437
Hypovolemic thirst is triggered by a loss of water volume......Page 438
We don’t stop drinking just because the throat and mouth are wet......Page 439
Nutrient Regulation Helps Prepare for Future Needs......Page 440
Most of our food is used to provide us with energy......Page 441
We can store energy for future needs......Page 443
Insulin Is Crucial for the Regulation of Body Metabolism......Page 444
The Hypothalamus Coordinates Multiple Systems That Control Hunger......Page 445
Multiple peripheral signals are integrated by a hypothalamic appetite network......Page 446
Other systems also play a role in hunger and satiety......Page 450
Obesity Is Difficult to Treat......Page 452
Eating Disorders Are Life-Threatening......Page 454
Visual Summary
......Page 457
Many Animals Show Daily Rhythms in Activity......Page 459
Circadian rhythms are generated by an endogenous clock......Page 460
Transplants prove that the SCN produces a circadian rhythm......Page 461
In mammals, light information from the eyes reaches the SCN directly......Page 462
Circadian rhythms have been genetically dissected in flies and mice......Page 463
Some Biological Rhythms Are Longer or Shorter than a Day......Page 465
Human Sleep Exhibits Different Stages......Page 466
How much do we sleep, and when?......Page 468
We do our most vivid dreaming during REM sleep......Page 469
REM sleep evolved in some vertebrates......Page 470
Mammals sleep more during infancy than in adulthood......Page 471
Most people sleep appreciably less as they age......Page 472
Sleep deprivation predictably alters sleep patterns......Page 473
What Are the Biological Functions of Sleep?......Page 475
Sleep enforces niche adaptation......Page 476
Sleep aids memory consolidation......Page 477
The forebrain generates slow-wave sleep......Page 479
The pons triggers REM sleep......Page 481
A hypothalamic sleep center was revealed by the study of narcolepsy......Page 482
Some minor dysfunctions are associated with sleep......Page 484
Insomniacs have trouble falling asleep or staying asleep......Page 485
Although many drugs affect sleep, there is no perfect sleeping pill......Page 486
Visual Summary
......Page 490
PART V  Emotions and Mental Disorders......Page 491
15. Emotions, Aggression, and Stress......Page 493
Do emotions cause bodily changes, or vice versa?......Page 494
Stanley Schachter proposed a cognitive interpretation of stimuli and visceral states......Page 495
How may emotion and emotional displays have evolved?......Page 498
Individuals differ in their emotional responsiveness......Page 499
Facial expressions have complex functions in communication......Page 500
Facial expressions are mediated by muscles, cranial nerves, and CNS pathways......Page 502
Do Distinct Brain Circuits Mediate Different Emotions?......Page 503
Brain lesions affect emotions......Page 504
Fear is mediated by circuitry that includes the amygdala......Page 505
Different emotions activate different regions of the human brain......Page 509
Androgens seem to increase aggression......Page 511
The biopsychology of human violence is a topic of controversy......Page 513
The stress response has multiple stages......Page 514
Individual differences in the stress response......Page 516
Emotions and stress influence the immune system......Page 517
Why does stress suppress the immune system?......Page 520
Visual Summary
......Page 524
16. Psychopathology: Biological Basis of Behavioral Disorders......Page 525
Schizophrenia Is the Major Neurobiological Challenge in Psychiatry......Page 526
Schizophrenia is characterized by an unusual array of symptoms......Page 527
Schizophrenia has a heritable component......Page 528
The brains of some patients with schizophrenia show structural and functional changes......Page 530
Antipsychotic medications revolutionized the treatment of schizophrenia......Page 534
An integrative psychobiological model of schizophrenia emphasizes the interaction of multiple factors......Page 538
Bipolar disorder has a lot in common with schizophrenia......Page 540
Inheritance is an important determinant of depression......Page 542
A wide variety of treatments are available for depression......Page 543
The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis is involved in depression......Page 545
Why do more females than males suffer from depression?......Page 546
Sleep characteristics change in affective disorders......Page 547
Scientists are still searching for animal models of depression......Page 548
Drug treatment of anxiety provides clues to the mechanisms of this disorder......Page 549
In posttraumatic stress disorder, horrible memories won’t go away......Page 550
In obsessive-compulsive disorder, thoughts and acts keep repeating......Page 551
Visual Summary
......Page 557
PART VI  Cognitive Neuroscience......Page 559
17. Learning and Memory......Page 561
For patient H.M., the present vanished into oblivion......Page 562
Medial temporal lobe structures are crucial for declarative memory......Page 564
Damage to the medial diencephalon can also cause amnesia......Page 566
The cortex is essential for long-term storage of memories......Page 567
Specific functions depend on different forms of nondeclarative memory......Page 568
Medial temporal mechanisms keep track of positions in spatial, temporal, and social networks......Page 570
Successive Processes Capture, Store, and Retrieve Information in the Brain......Page 571
A variety of brain regions are involved in different attributes of working memory......Page 572
STM and LTM involve several different processes......Page 574
Plastic changes at synapses can be physiological or structural......Page 579
Varied experiences and learning cause the brain to change and grow......Page 581
Invertebrate Nervous Systems Show Plasticity......Page 582
Some Simple Learning in Mammals Relies on Circuits in the Cerebellum......Page 584
Synaptic Plasticity Can Be Measured in Simple Hippocampal Circuits......Page 585
NMDA receptors and AMPA receptors collaborate in LTP......Page 587
Is LTP a mechanism of memory formation?......Page 589
In the Adult Brain, Newly Born Neurons May Aid Learning......Page 591
Learning and Memory Change as We Age......Page 592
Can the effects of aging on memory be prevented or alleviated?......Page 593
Visual Summary
......Page 597
18. Attention and Higher Cognition......Page 599
Attention Selects Stimuli for Processing......Page 600
There are limits on attention......Page 601
We can decide where to direct our attention......Page 603
Some stimuli grab our attention......Page 605
Attention helps us to search a cluttered world for specific patterns......Page 606
Attention Affects the Functioning of the Brain......Page 608
Distinctive patterns of brain electrical activity mark shifts of attention......Page 609
Neuroimaging confirms that the anatomical foci of attention show augmented processing......Page 611
Attention alters the functioning of individual neurons......Page 612
The superior colliculus guides attentional eye movements......Page 614
Several cortical areas are crucial for generating and directing attention......Page 615
Multiple brain regions collaborate in networks that govern attention......Page 616
Disorders Provide Clues about the Organization of Attention......Page 618
Neglect of one side of the body and space can result from parietal lobe injury......Page 619
Difficulty with sustained attention can sometimes be relieved with stimulants......Page 620
Consciousness Is a Mysterious Product of the Brain......Page 621
Which brain regions are active when we are conscious?......Page 622
Some aspects of consciousness are easier to study than others......Page 624
The frontal lobes are a crucial part of the executive system that guides our thoughts, feelings, and choices......Page 627
Frontal lobe injury in humans leads to emotional, motor, and cognitive changes......Page 628
Frontal mechanisms sift alternatives, evaluate risk and reward, and guide decisions accordingly......Page 630
Visual Summary
......Page 633
19. Language and Lateralization......Page 635
Disconnection of the cerebral hemispheres reveals their individual specializations......Page 636
The two hemispheres process information differently in most humans......Page 638
The left and right hemispheres differ in their auditory specializations......Page 639
Handedness is associated with cerebral lateralization......Page 641
In prosopagnosia, faces are unrecognizable......Page 643
Language Disorders Result from Region-Specific Brain Damage......Page 645
Lesions of a left anterior speech zone cause nonfluent (or Broca’s) aphasia......Page 646
Lesions of a left posterior speech zone cause fluent (or Wernicke’s) aphasia......Page 647
Widespread left-hemisphere damage can obliterate language capabilities......Page 648
Competing Models Describe the Left-Hemisphere Language System......Page 649
Cortical stimulation mapping provides precise identification of language areas......Page 651
Functional neuroimaging tracks activity in the brain’s language zones......Page 653
Language Has Both Learned and Unlearned Components......Page 656
Nonhuman primates engage in elaborate vocal behavior......Page 659
Brain damage may cause specific impairments in reading......Page 662
Some people struggle to read throughout their lives......Page 663
Stabilization and Reorganization Are Crucial for Recovery of Function......Page 665
The brain regrows and reorganizes anatomically after being injured......Page 666
Rehabilitation and retraining can help recovery from brain and spinal cord injury......Page 667
Visual Summary
......Page 670
Genetic information is stored in molecules of DNA......Page 671
RNA molecules direct the formation of protein molecules......Page 672
Molecular Biologists Have Craftily Enslaved Microorganisms and Enzymes......Page 673
Southern blots identify particular genes......Page 674
Western blots identify particular proteins......Page 676
Gene Editing Enables the Creation of Model Organisms......Page 678
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Illustration Credits......Page 715
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Author Index......Page 779
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About the Book......Page 815
Companion Website Access Instructions......Page 3
Companion Website Resources......Page 4