Basic Electronics

Cover
Basic
Electronics
	Copyright
Brief Contents
	Contents
Preface
Reviewers
The Author and the Contributor
Semiconductor Fundamentals
	Introduction
	Crystalline Materials
		Crystals and Crystal Structures
		Mechanical Properties
		Energy Band Theory
	Basis of Classification: Metals, Semiconductors and Insulators
		Insulators (Eg >> 4 eV)
		Semiconductors (0 eV ≤ Eg ≤ 4 eV)
		Metals (Inter-Penetrating Band Structure)
	Intrinsic Semiconductors
	Extrinsic Semiconductors
		Doping
		Dopants
		Carrier Statistics in n- and p-type Semiconductors
	Electrical Conduction Phenomenon
		Mobility
		Conductivity
		Diffusion of Carriers
		Einstein Relation
		Recombination and Generation Processes
	The Continuity Equation
	Hall Effect
Diode Fundamentals
	Introduction
	Formation of the p–n Junction
	Energy Band Diagrams
		The p–n Junction at Thermal Equilibrium
	Concepts of Junction Potential
		Space-Charge Region
		Built-in and Contact Potentials
		Effect of Doping on Barrier Field
		Formulation of Built-in Potential
	Modes of the p–n Junction
		The p–n Junction with External Applied Voltage
		Rectifying Voltage–Current Characteristics of a p–n Junction
		The Junction Capacitance
		The Varactor Diode
	Derivation of the I–V Characteristics of a p–n Junction Diode
	Linear Piecewise Models
	Breakdown Diode
		Zener Breakdown
		Avalanche Breakdown
	Special Types of p–n Junction Semiconductor Diodes
		Tunnel Diode
		Light-Emitting Diode
		Photo Detector Diode
		Photovoltaic Diode
	Applications of Diode
		Radio Demodulation
		Power Conversion
		Over-Voltage Protection
		Logic Gates
		Ionizing Radiation Detectors
		Temperature Measuring
		Charge-Coupled Devices
Diode Circuits
	Introduction
	Analysis of Diode Circuits
	Load Line and Q-Point
	Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator
		Line Regulation
		Load Regulation: Regulation with Varying Load Resistance
	Rectifiers
		Half-Wave Rectifier
		Full-Wave Rectifier
		Use of Filters in Rectification
		Regulation
		Performance Analysis of Various Rectifier Circuits
	Clipper and Clamper Circuits
		Clipper
		Clamper
	Comparators
	Additional Diode Circuits
		Voltage Multiplier
		Peak Detector
		Digital Circuits
		Switching Regulators
BJT Fundamentals
	Introduction
	Formation of p–n–p and n–p–n Junctions
	Transistor Mechanism
	Energy Band Diagrams
	Transistor Current Components
		Current Components in p–n–p Transistor
		Current Components in n–p–n Transistor
	CB, CE and CC Configurations
		Common-Base Mode
		Common-Emitter Mode
		Common-Collector Mode
	Expression for Current Gain
		Relationship Between α and β
	Transistor Characteristics
		Input Characteristics
		Output Characteristics
	Operating Point and the Concept of Load Line
	Early Effect
BJT Circuits
	Introduction
	Biasing and Bias Stability
		Circuit Configurations
		Stabilization Against Variations in Iсо' Vве and β
	Calculation of Stability Factors
		Stability Factor s
		Stability Factor s'
		Stability Factor s″
		General Remarks on Collector Current Stability
	CE, CB Modes and Their Properties
		Common-Emitter Mode
		Common-Base Mode
	Small-Signal Low-Frequency Operation of Transistors
		Hybrid Parameters and Two-Port Network
	Equivalent Circuits Through Hybrid Parameters as a Two-Port Network
	Transistor as Amplifier
		The Parameter α׳
	Expressions of Current Gain, Input Resistance, Voltage Gain
and Output Resistance
		Current Gain
		Input Resistance
		Voltage Gain
		Output Resistance
	Frequency Response for CE Amplifier with and without Source Impedance
		Conclusions
	Emitter Follower
	Darlington Pair
	Transistor at High Frequencies
	Real-Life Applications of the Transistor
Field-Effect Transistor
	Introduction
	The Field-Effect Transistor
		Junction Field-Effect Transistor
		Insulated Gate Field-Effect Transistor
		Metal-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor
	Construction of the JFET
	Biasing of the JFET
		Effect of the Gate Voltage
	Current–Voltage Characteristics
	Transfer Characteristics of the JFET
	Construction and Characteristics of the MOSFET
		Depletion-Type MOSFET
		Enhancement- Type MOSFET
	Complementary MOS
		Construction of the CMOS
		CMOS Inverter
	Real-Life Applications of the FET
FET Circuits
	Introduction
	FET Biasing
		Fixed-Bias Arrangement
		Self-Bias Arrangement
		Voltage Divider Biasing Arrangement
	FET as an Amplifier
		DC Bias Point
		Voltage Gain of the FET
	Electrical Parameters of the FET
	AC Equivalent Circuit for Small-Signal Analysis
		Small-Signal Model for the MOSFET
	High-Frequency MOSFET Model
		Effective Capacitance of the Gate
		The Junction Capacitance
		The High-Frequency Models of the MOSFET
	Additional FET Circuits
		MOS Differential Amplifiers
		Current Source Circuits
	Comparison Between the FET and the BJT
Special Semiconductor Devices
	Introduction
	Silicon-Controlled Rectifier
		Constructional Features
		Physical Operation and Characteristics
		I–V Characteristics of the SCR
		Simple Applications
	Triode AC Switch
		Constructional Features
	Diode AC Switch
		Constructional Features
		Physical Operation and Characteristics
		Applications
	Unijunction Transistor
		Constructional Features
		Physical Operation and Characteristics
		Applications
	Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor
		Constructional Features
		Physical Operation and Characteristics
	Real-Life Applications
Feedback Amplifier
	Introduction
	Conceptual Development Through Block Diagrams
		Input Signal
		Output Signal
		Sampling Network
		Comparison or Summing Network
		Basic Amplifier
	Properties of Negative Feedback
	Calculations of Open-Loop Gain, Closed-Loop Gain and Feedback Factors
		Loop Gain or Return Ratio
	Topologies of the Feedback Amplifier
		Voltage-Series or Series-Shunt Feedback
		Current-Series or Series-Series Feedback
		Current-Shunt or Shunt-Series Feedback
		Voltage-Shunt or Shunt-Shunt Feedback
	Effect of Feedback on Gain, Input and Output Impedances
		Effect of Feedback on Input Impedance
		Effect of Feedback on Output Impedance
	Practical Implementations of the Feedback Topologies
		Voltage-Series Feedback Using Transistor
		Current-Series Feedback Using Transistor
		Voltage-Shunt Feedback Using Transistor
		Current-Shunt Feedback Using Transistor
	Sensitivity
	Bandwidth Stability
	Effect of Positive Feedback
		Instability and Oscillation
		Nyquist Criterion
		Condition of Oscillation
		Barkhausen Criterion
Fundamentals of Integrated Circuit Fabrication
	Introduction
	Fundamentals of Integrated Circuits
	Types of Integrated Circuits
		Monolithic IC
		Hybrid IC
	Advantages and Disadvantages of Integrated Circuits
	Scale of Integration
		Types of IC Chips
	Crystal Growth and Wafer Preparation
	Epitaxial Growth
	Oxidation for Isolation
	Photolithography for Pattern Transfer
		Mask Alignment and UV Exposure
	Etching for Design
		Wet Chemical Etching
		Dry Chemical Etching
		Chemical Plasma Etching
		Ion Beam Etching
		Reactive Ion Etching
	Diffusion for Doping
	Ion Implantation for Doping
	Metallization for Interconnection
	Testing for Reliability
	Packaging Protection
	IC Symbols
	Fabrication Steps for Different Circuits
		Fabrication of Resistors in Integrated Circuits
		Steps of Fabrication of Capacitors
		Steps of Fabrication of the Transistor Circuit
		The Schottky Diode
		Schematic Diagram of a CMOS Circuit
	Real-Life Applications
Operational Amplifier
	Introduction
	Properties of the Ideal Operational Amplifier
	Specifications of IC 741C
		Description of Op-Amp 741 IC Pins
	Operational Amplifier and its Terminal Properties
		Input Offset Voltage and Output Offset Voltage
		Input-Bias Current
		Input Offset Current and Output Offset Current
		Input Offset Null Voltage
		Differential Input Resistance
		Input Capacitance
		Offset Voltage Adjustment Range
		Input Voltage Range
		Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
		Supply Voltage Rejection Ratio
		Large Signal Voltage Gain
		Output Voltage Swing
		Output Resistance
		Supply Voltage
		Supply Current
		Power Consumption
		Slew Rate
		Gain Bandwidth Product
		Virtual Ground
	Applications of the Operational Amplifier
		Inverting Mode of Operation
		Non-Inverting Mode of Operation
		Voltage Summing, Difference, and Constant Gain Multiplier
		Voltage Follower or Unity Gain Amplifier
		Comparator
		Integrator
		Differentiator
		Logarithmic Amplifier
	Real-Life Applications
Oscillators
	Introduction
	Classifications of Oscillators
	Circuit Analysis of a General Oscillator
		Hartley Oscillator
		Colpitts Oscillator
		Phase-Shift Oscillator
		Wien-Bridge Oscillator
	Conditions for Oscillation: Barkhausen Criterion
		Nyquist Criterion for Oscillation
	Tuned Oscillator
		Circuit Analysis
	Crystal Oscillator
	Real-Life Applications of Oscillators
		Voltage-Controlled Oscillator
		Cascode Crystal Oscillator
Digital Electronic Principles
	Introduction
	Number System
	Conversion of Number System
		Binary to Decimal
		Decimal to Binary
		Numer System Conversions
	Boolean Algebra
		Addition
		Subtraction
		Basic Boolean Laws
	Logic Gates
		AND Gate
		OR Gate
		NOT Gate
		NAND Gate
		NOR Gate
		XOR Gate
		XNOR Gate
		Universal Gate
		Characteristics of Logic Gates
	De Morgan’s Theorem
		Using Basic Logic Gates
		Application of De Morgan’s Theorem
	Simplification of Boolean Expression
	Logic Gate Circuits
		Combinational Logic
		Sequential Logic Circuit
	Real-Life Applications of Digital Circuits
Electronic Instruments
	Introduction
	Components of the Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope
	Cathode-Ray Tube
		Electron Gun
		Deflection Systems
		Fluorescent Screen
	Time-Base Generators
		Oscilloscope Amplifiers
		Vertical Amplifiers
	Measurements Using the Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope
		Measurement of Frequency
		Measurement of Phase Using Lissajous Figures
		Measurement of Phase
	Types of Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope
		Analog CRO
		Digital CRO
		Storage CRO
		Dual-Beam CRO
	Sweep Frequency Generator
		Applications of the Sweep Frequency Generator
	Function Generator
	Sine Wave Generator
	Square Wave Generator
	AF Signal Generator
Index
	Index