Australian Languages: Their Nature and Development (Cambridge Language Surveys)

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Series-title......Page 4
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
CONTENTS......Page 9
MAPS......Page 15
ABBREVIATIONS AND CONVENTIONS......Page 17
PREFACE......Page 19
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......Page 24
CONVENTIONS FOLLOWED......Page 26
LANGUAGES AND LANGUAGE GROUPS......Page 32
1.1 A partial picture......Page 45
1.2 Social organisation and lifestyle......Page 47
1.3 The languages......Page 48
1.4 Prehistory......Page 51
1.5 Diffusion of non-linguistic traits......Page 56
2.1.1 Assumptions......Page 64
2.1. 2 Types of similarity......Page 65
2.1. 3 Family trees......Page 66
2.1. 4 Diffusion......Page 68
2.1.5 The 50 per cent equilibrium level......Page 71
2.2 The Punctuated Equilibrium model......Page 75
2.2.1 Linguistic equilibrium......Page 76
2.2.2 Punctuation......Page 77
2.3 The Australian scene......Page 79
2.4.1 Language split......Page 84
2.4.2 Language merger?......Page 85
Appendix The 'Pama-Nyungan' idea......Page 88
3 Overview......Page 99
3.1.1 Actual/potential......Page 100
3.1.3 Primacy of generic terms......Page 101
3.2 Phonology......Page 107
3.3.1 Word classes......Page 110
3.3.2 Nouns and adjectives......Page 111
3.3.3 Shifters: pronouns, demonstratives and more......Page 112
3.3.4 Verbs......Page 114
3.3.5 Inflection......Page 115
3.3.6 Derivation......Page 119
3.3.7 Possession......Page 121
3.3.8 Clause structure and constituent order......Page 122
3.3.9 Commands......Page 123
3.3.10 Questions......Page 124
3.3.11 Negation......Page 125
3.3.12 Complex sentences......Page 130
3.4 Special speech styles......Page 135
4 Vocabulary......Page 140
4.1 Lexical meanings......Page 142
4.2 Lexemes......Page 144
4.2.1 Flora and fauna......Page 146
4.2.2 Body parts......Page 150
4.2.3 Kin terms......Page 156
4.2.4 Artefacts......Page 157
4.2.5 Other nouns......Page 158
4.2.6 Adjectives......Page 159
4.2.7 Verbs......Page 161
4.3 Observations......Page 168
4.3.1 Phonological observations......Page 169
4.3.3 The status of A1, West Torres......Page 173
5 Case and other nominal suffixes......Page 175
5.1.1 Core clausal functions......Page 176
5.1.2 Peripheral clausal functions......Page 177
5.1.3 Phrasal functions......Page 182
5.1.4 Local functions......Page 186
5.2 Case attachment......Page 187
5.3 Interpretation......Page 189
5.3.1 Double case......Page 191
5.4 Case forms......Page 196
5.4.1 Variation across NP constituents......Page 197
5.4.2 Accusative......Page 199
5.4.3 Ergative, locative and instrumental......Page 201
5.4.4 Purposive, dative, genitive and allative......Page 210
5.4.5 Ablative and causal......Page 212
5.4.6 Comitative and privative......Page 214
5.4.8 Summary of relations between forms......Page 215
5.5 Conclusion......Page 217
6.1 Transitivity......Page 220
6.2 Manner adverbs......Page 225
6.3 Simple and complex verbs......Page 227
6.3.1 Types of verbal organisation......Page 231
6.3.2 A cyclic pattern of change......Page 241
6.4.1 Semantic derivations......Page 245
6.4.2 Syntactic derivations......Page 246
6.4.3 Deriving verbs from nominals......Page 251
6.5 Verb forms and inflections......Page 253
6.5.1 Forms of inflections......Page 257
6.5.2 Forms of verbs and development of conjugations......Page 259
6.5.3 Loss of conjugations......Page 268
6.5.4 Extended fusion......Page 278
6.6 Nominal suffixes onto verbs......Page 281
6.7 Copula and verbless clauses......Page 283
7.1 Pronoun systems......Page 287
7.2 Number-segmentable pronoun systems......Page 290
7.2.1 Forms......Page 297
7.3 Non-number-segmentable pronoun systems......Page 306
7.3.1 Forms......Page 310
7.4 The evolution of pronoun systems......Page 329
7.4.1 Diffusion......Page 336
7.4.2 Recurrent features of change and reanalysis......Page 338
7.5 Pronominal case forms......Page 343
7.5.1 Stage A......Page 344
7.5.2 Stage B......Page 351
7.5.3 Stage C-i......Page 354
7.5.4 Stage C-ii......Page 356
7.5.6 Summary......Page 358
7.5.7 Non-core functions......Page 359
7.6 Reflexives and reciprocals......Page 363
7.7 Interrogatives/indefinites......Page 371
7.8 Demonstratives......Page 379
8 Bound pronouns......Page 381
8.1 What are bound pronouns?......Page 385
8.2.1 Which arguments?......Page 388
8.2.2 How many in a clause?......Page 389
8.2.3 Case systems......Page 391
8.3 Choices......Page 395
8.4 Forms......Page 397
8.4.1 Free and bound pronominal forms......Page 398
8.4.2 Zero realisation......Page 407
8.5.1 Person......Page 409
8.5.2 Number......Page 411
8.6.1 Number of positions......Page 414
8.6.2 Order of transitive arguments......Page 415
8.6.3 Location in the clause......Page 418
8.7 Links with other categories......Page 421
8.8 Patterns of development......Page 423
8.9 Possessive bound pronouns......Page 438
9 Prefixing and fusion......Page 446
9.1 Verbs, coverbs and pronominal placement......Page 453
9.2 Structure of the verb in prefixing languages......Page 460
9.2.1 Valency-changing affixes......Page 462
9.2.2 Directional markers......Page 463
9.2.3 Negation and number......Page 464
9.3 Nominal incorporation......Page 467
9.4 Pronominal prefixes and TAM......Page 473
9.5 Pronominal prefixes to transitive verbs......Page 481
9.6 Implications......Page 491
10 Generic nouns, classifiers, genders and noun classes......Page 493
10.1 Generic nouns and classifiers......Page 498
10.1.1 Semantics......Page 500
10.1.2 Grammar......Page 502
10.2 Feminine suffix -gan......Page 504
10.3 Gender in free pronouns......Page 505
10.4 Noun classes in non-prefixing languages......Page 507
10.5 Nominal prefixes in prefixing languages......Page 512
10.6 Noun classes in prefixing languages......Page 514
10.6.1 Noun classes and number......Page 517
10.6.2 Where noun classes are marked......Page 518
10.6.3 Semantics......Page 529
10.6.4 Markedness......Page 532
10.6.5 Forms......Page 536
10.6.6 Development......Page 541
10.6.7 Loss......Page 550
10.7 Noun classes and case marking......Page 552
10.7.1 The loss of case marking......Page 553
10.8 Summary......Page 557
11.1 Development of morphological marking......Page 559
11.2 Syntactic pivots......Page 564
11.3 Antipassive and passive......Page 574
11.3.1 *-dharri and other suffxes that can mark antipassive and/or passive function......Page 575
11.4 Shifts in profile......Page 580
11.5 Summary......Page 589
12 Phonology......Page 591
12.1 Canonical systems......Page 592
12.1.1 Consonants......Page 594
12.1.2 Vowels......Page 596
12.1.3 Phonotactics......Page 597
12.1.4 Stress......Page 601
12.2 Laminals......Page 602
12.3 Apicals, including rhotics......Page 609
12.3.1 Stops and nasals (and laterals)......Page 611
12.3.2 Rhotics......Page 617
12.3.3 The apical problem......Page 625
12.4 Initial dropping and medial strengthening......Page 633
12.4.1 Loss and lenition of initial consonant......Page 637
12.4.2 Loss or shortening of first vowel......Page 639
12.4.3 Changes affecting C2......Page 641
12.4.4 Vowel copying and metathesis......Page 642
12.4.5 Changes at V2......Page 643
12.4.6 An overall perspective......Page 644
12.5 Stop contrasts, and fricatives......Page 646
12.5.1 Historical development, and loss......Page 647
12.5.2 Occurrence......Page 649
12.6 Glottals......Page 659
12.7.1 Assimilation......Page 663
12.7.2 Dissimilation......Page 669
12.7.3 Further changes......Page 671
12.8.1 Vowel quality......Page 672
12.8.2 Evolution of additional vowels......Page 675
12.8.3 Occurrence......Page 678
12.8.4 Vowel length......Page 682
12.9 On the margin of a word......Page 687
12.9.1 Vowel-final languages......Page 688
12.9.2 Consonant-final languages......Page 692
12.9.3 Non-prototypical consonant clusters......Page 697
13.1 Some genetic subgroups......Page 703
13.2 Small linguistic areas......Page 712
13.3 Origin places and directions of expansion......Page 724
13.4 Shifting isoglosses......Page 730
14 Summary and conclusion......Page 734
14.1 Outline of development......Page 735
14.2 Diffusional patterns and cyclic change......Page 739
References......Page 744
INDEX OF LANGUAGES, DIALECTS AND LANGUAGE GROUPS......Page 763
SUBJECT INDEX......Page 775