Australian Intellectual Property Law

Half title
Title page
Imprints page
Dedication
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
Table of cases
Table of statutes
Table of statutory instruments
Part I Introduction
	1 Introduction
		1.1 The nature of intellectual property
		1.2 Theories of intellectual property
			1.2.1 The ‘property’ in intellectual property
			1.2.2 Natural or personality rights
			1.2.3 Incentive to create and disseminate
			1.2.4 Protection for investment
			1.2.5 Rent seeking
			1.2.6 A combination of all the above
		1.3 The intellectual property regimes
			1.3.1 Copyright and related rights
			1.3.2 Designs
			1.3.3 Confidential information
			1.3.4 Patents
			1.3.5 Plant breeder’s rights
			1.3.6 Passing off
			1.3.7 Registered trade marks
		1.4 Impact of new technology
		1.5 Internationalisation of intellectual property
			1.5.1 World Intellectual Property Organization
			1.5.2 TRIPS
			1.5.3 Plurilateral and bilateral agreements
			1.5.4 Investor–state dispute settlement
			1.5.5 Harmonisation of intellectual property procedures
		1.6 Intellectual property in Australia
			1.6.1 History of Australian intellectual property law
			1.6.2 Constitutional law issues
		1.7 Scheme of the book
Part II Copyright, designs and related rights
	2 Copyright: introduction
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Justifications
			2.2.1 Utilitarian arguments
			2.2.2 Natural rights arguments
		2.3 History
			2.3.1 The British legacy
			2.3.2 The Copyright Act 1968 and its reforms
				2.3.2.1 Reprographic reproduction
				2.3.2.2 CLRC and other reviews
				2.3.2.3 Digital agenda reforms
				2.3.2.4 AUSFTA and WIPO commitments
				2.3.2.5 Film directors’ rights
				2.3.2.6 Technological protection measures
				2.3.2.7 Resale royalty rights
				2.3.2.8 Digital economy and online piracy
				2.3.2.9 Productivity Commission review
				2.3.2.10 Disability access
				2.3.2.11 Copyright modernisation
				2.3.2.12 Administration of copyright licences
		2.4 International influences
			2.4.1 Berne Convention
			2.4.2 Universal Copyright Convention
			2.4.3 Rome Convention
			2.4.4 TRIPS
			2.4.5 WIPO internet treaties
			2.4.6 AUSFTA
			2.4.7 Marrakesh Treaty
			2.4.8 Beijing Treaty
			2.4.9 Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement
			2.4.10 Future reforms
	3 Copyright: subsistence
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Subject matter
			3.2.1 Works (Part III)
				3.2.1.1 Literary works
					3.2.1.1.1 Names, titles and trade marks
					3.2.1.1.2 Tables and compilations
					3.2.1.1.3 Computer programs
				3.2.1.2 Dramatic works
				3.2.1.3 Musical works
				3.2.1.4 Artistic works
					3.2.1.4.1 Paintings
					3.2.1.4.2 Sculptures
					3.2.1.4.3 Drawings
					3.2.1.4.4 Engravings
					3.2.1.4.5 Photographs
					3.2.1.4.6 Buildings or models of a building
					3.2.1.4.7 Artistic craftsmanship
			3.2.2 Subject matter other than works (Part IV)
				3.2.2.1 Films
				3.2.2.2 Sound recordings
				3.2.2.3 Broadcasts
				3.2.2.4 Published editions
		3.3 Recorded in material form
		3.4 Connected to Australia
		3.5 ‘Originality’
			3.5.1 Original literary, dramatic, musical and artistic works
			3.5.2 Subject matter other than works
	4 Copyright: authorship, first ownership, and nature and duration of rights
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 ‘Authorship’ and first ownership
			4.2.1 Who is the author?
				4.2.1.1 Literary, dramatic, musical and artistic works
				4.2.1.2 Cinematograph films
				4.2.1.3 Sound recordings
				4.2.1.4 Broadcasts
				4.2.1.5 Published editions
			4.2.2 Joint authorship
			4.2.3 Orphan works
		4.3 Exceptions to first ownership
			4.3.1 Works created by employees
				4.3.1.1 Who is an employee?
				4.3.1.2 Was the work created ‘in pursuance of the terms of employment’?
			4.3.2 Works created by journalists
			4.3.3 Commissioned works
			4.3.4 Crown copyright
		4.4 Nature of the rights
			4.4.1 The right of reproduction
			4.4.2 The right to publish the work
			4.4.3 The right to perform the work in public
			4.4.4 The right to communicate the work to the public
			4.4.5 The right to make an adaptation of the work
			4.4.6 The right of commercial rental
		4.5 Technological protection measures
			4.5.1 Anti-circumvention
				4.5.1.1 Circumventing an access control TPM
					4.5.1.1.1 Exceptions
				4.5.1.2 Aiding and abetting in the circumvention of a TPM
					4.5.1.2.1 Exceptions
				4.5.1.3 Providing a circumvention service
					4.5.1.3.1 Exceptions
				4.5.1.4 Criminal actions
				4.5.1.5 Defences to liability for criminal actions
			4.5.2 Rights management information
			4.5.3 Unauthorised access to encoded broadcasts
		4.6 Duration
	5 Copyright: exploitation, infringement and defences
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Exploitation
			5.2.1 Assignment
			5.2.2 Licences
				5.2.2.1 Express licences
				5.2.2.2 Implied licences
				5.2.2.3 Compulsory and statutory licences
					5.2.2.3.1 Musical works, sound recordings, broadcasts and Crown copyright
					5.2.2.3.2 Educational statutory licences
			5.2.3 Collective administration
				5.2.3.1 Collecting societies
					5.2.3.1.1 Copyright Agency
					5.2.3.1.2 Screenrights
					5.2.3.1.3 APRA AMCOS
					5.2.3.1.4 PPCA
				5.2.3.2 The Copyright Tribunal of Australia
		5.3 Infringement
			5.3.1 Direct infringement
				5.3.1.1 Activities within copyright owner’s exclusive control
				5.3.1.2 Alleged infringing work derived from copyright work
				5.3.1.3 Unauthorised act done on whole or substantial part of copyright work
				5.3.1.4 Authorisation
					5.3.1.4.1 The meaning of ‘authorisation’
					5.3.1.4.2 Liability of internet service providers
			5.3.2 Indirect infringement
				5.3.2.1 Parallel importation
				5.3.2.2 Books
				5.3.2.3 Sound recordings
				5.3.2.4 Books, periodicals and printed music in electronic format, and computer programs
				5.3.2.5 Non-infringing accessories to the article
		5.4 Relief for copyright infringement
			5.4.1 Injunctions
			5.4.2 Damages
				5.4.2.1 Additional damages
			5.4.3 Innocent infringement
			5.4.4 Conversion or detention
			5.4.5 Groundless threats to sue
			5.4.6 Criminal offences
		5.5 Defences and limitations
			5.5.1 Fair dealing
				5.5.1.1 Permitted purposes
					5.5.1.1.1 Research or study
					5.5.1.1.2 Criticism or review
					5.5.1.1.3 Reporting news
					5.5.1.1.4 Professional advice and legal proceedings
					5.5.1.1.5 Parody or satire
					5.5.1.1.6 Access by persons with a disability
				5.5.1.2 The dealing must be ‘fair’
			5.5.2 Time shifting
			5.5.3 Format shifting
			5.5.4 Exceptions for archives, libraries and key cultural institutions
			5.5.5 Educational uses
			5.5.6 Organisations assisting persons with a disability
			5.5.7 Artistic works
			5.5.8 Computer programs
			5.5.9 Temporary and incidental reproductions
			5.5.10 Legal materials
			5.5.11 Government uses
			5.5.12 Reading or recitation in public
			5.5.13 Sound recordings
			5.5.14 Films
			5.5.15 Public interest
			5.5.16 Contracting out of the defences
			5.5.17 Future reforms
	6 Areas related to copyright: moral rights, performers’ rights, artist’s resale rights, and other rights
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Moral rights
			6.2.1 The right of attribution
			6.2.2 The right of integrity
			6.2.3 The right to object to false attribution
			6.2.4 Limits on moral rights
				6.2.4.1 ‘Reasonable in all the circumstances’
				6.2.4.2 Consent
			6.2.5 Remedies for infringement of moral rights
			6.2.6 Indigenous communal moral rights?
		6.3 Performers’ rights
			6.3.1 Performers’ moral rights
		6.4 Artist’s resale rights
		6.5 Circuit layouts
			6.5.1 Nature and scope of circuit layouts
			6.5.2 Subsistence
			6.5.3 Exclusive rights
			6.5.4 Ownership
			6.5.5 Exploitation
			6.5.6 Duration
			6.5.7 Infringement
			6.5.8 Exceptions and defences
				6.5.8.1 Innocent commercial exploitation
			6.5.9 Remedies
			6.5.10 Overlap with copyright and design protection?
		6.6 Public and educational lending rights
	7 Designs
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 History
		7.3 The registration process
			7.3.1 Who can apply?
			7.3.2 Requirements of the application
			7.3.3 Request for registration or publication
			7.3.4 Publication
			7.3.5 Registration
			7.3.6 Priority date
			7.3.7 Duration
			7.3.8 Post-registration examination
		7.4 Criteria for protection
			7.4.1 Meaning of ‘design’
				7.4.1.1 Visual features
				7.4.1.2 Product
					7.4.1.2.1 Spare parts
			7.4.2 New and distinctive
		7.5 Ownership
		7.6 Rights
		7.7 Infringement
			7.7.1 Primary infringement
			7.7.2 Secondary infringement
		7.8 Defences
			7.8.1 The right of repair for spare parts defence
				7.8.1.1 ‘Repair’
				7.8.1.2 ‘Overall appearance of a product’
				7.8.1.3 Onus of proof
			7.8.2 Consent and parallel importation
			7.8.3 Crown use and supply
		7.9 Remedies
			7.9.1 Unjustified threats
		7.10 Copyright–design overlap
			7.10.1 Registration of a corresponding design
			7.10.2 Industrial application of a corresponding design
		7.11 Future reforms
Part III Confidential information, patents and plant breeder’s rights
	8 Equitable doctrine of breach of confidence
		8.1 Introduction
			8.1.1 Overview
			8.1.2 Subsistence of equitable obligations of confidence alongside comparable contractual obligations
		8.2 Origins of the equitable doctrine of breach of confidence
		8.3 Elements of the action
			8.3.1 Must be able to identify the information with specificity
			8.3.2 Information must have the necessary quality of confidence
				8.3.2.1 Ideas
				8.3.2.2 Concept of relative secrecy and the public domain
				8.3.2.3 Information based on public knowledge and ideas
				8.3.2.4 Guidelines for necessary quality of confidence for business or trade secrets
			8.3.3 Information given or received to import an obligation of confidence
				8.3.3.1 Receipt of information in circumstances that import an obligation of confidence
				8.3.3.2 Encrypted information
				8.3.3.3 Verbal confidences: inadvertent eavesdropping
				8.3.3.4 Verbal confidences: eavesdropping and telephone tapping
				8.3.3.5 Inadvertent acquisition of written confidences
				8.3.3.6 Surreptitious acquisition through theft or use of telephoto lens
			8.3.4 Unauthorised use or disclosure of the information
			8.3.5 The scope of the obligation
			8.3.6 The need to show detriment
			8.3.7 Reasonableness of obtaining a remedy
		8.4 How long does the obligation last?
			8.4.1 Express contractual obligations
			8.4.2 Equitable obligations
			8.4.3 Disclosure by the confider
			8.4.4 Disclosure by the confidant
			8.4.5 Disclosure by third party after confidence is imposed
		8.5 Entitlement
		8.6 Special circumstances: during employment
		8.7 Special circumstances: after employment
			8.7.1 Contract
				8.7.1.1 Express terms
				8.7.1.2 Implied duty of good faith
			8.7.2 Equitable principles of confidence
		8.8 Defences: public interest in disclosure
			8.8.1 Background
			8.8.2 Nature of a justification for disclosure in the public interest in Australia
		8.9 Remedies
			8.9.1 General
			8.9.2 The springboard principle
			8.9.3 Damages
		8.10 Relationship between confidential information and patents
		8.11 Relationship between confidential information and copyright
		8.12 International dimensions
	9 Patents for inventions: introduction
		9.1 What is a patent for invention?
		9.2 Origins of patent protection
		9.3 Development of patent law in Australia
		9.4 Rationales of patent protection
		9.5 Types of patent
			9.5.1 Standard and innovation patents
			9.5.2 Selection patents
			9.5.3 Combination patents
		9.6 Types of application
			9.6.1 Convention applications
			9.6.2 PCT applications
			9.6.3 Divisional applications
			9.6.4 Patents of addition
		9.7 Procedure for obtaining a standard patent
			9.7.1 The application
			9.7.2 Pre-examination
			9.7.3 Examination
			9.7.4 Acceptance and publication
			9.7.5 Opposition
			9.7.6 Re-examination
			9.7.7 Grant
		9.8 Processing an application for an innovation patent
		9.9 Patent term
		9.10 Extension of term of standard patents for pharmaceutical substances
			9.10.1 The application
			9.10.2 Calculation of the term of extension
		9.11 Requirement of claims to have a priority date
			9.11.1 Complete applications
			9.11.2 Convention applications
			9.11.3 PCT applications
			9.11.4 Required disclosure in a priority document
		9.12 The role of priority dates
		9.13 Withdrawal and lapsing of applications and ceasing of patents
			9.13.1 Withdrawal of patents
			9.13.2 Lapsing of patents
			9.13.3 Ceasing of patents
		9.14 International aspects
			9.14.1 Paris Convention
			9.14.2 TRIPS
			9.14.3 Budapest Treaty
			9.14.4 European Patent Convention
			9.14.5 Patent Law Treaty and proposed Substantive Patent Law Treaty
	10 Patents for inventions: validity
		10.1 Statutory requirements
		10.2 A two-tier system
		10.3 The concept of invention
		10.4 Manner of manufacture
			10.4.1 Time at which manner of manufacture is raised
			10.4.2 Background to the meaning of ‘manner of manufacture’
			10.4.3 NRDC v Commissioner of Patents: meaning of ‘manner of manufacture’
				10.4.3.1 The judgment
				10.4.3.2 NRDC guiding factors
			10.4.4 Application of NRDC principles to expand scope and remove classes of unpatentable inventions
			10.4.5 Computer programs and computer-implemented methods
				10.4.5.1 Computer programs
				10.4.5.2 Computer-implemented methods
			10.4.6 Genes and biological materials
			10.4.7 Methods of medical treatment for humans
			10.4.8 Discoveries, ideas, intellectual information and other unpatentable subject matter
			10.4.9 Reform proposals
		10.5 Generally inconvenient
		10.6 Novelty
			10.6.1 Introduction
			10.6.2 Time at which novelty is raised
			10.6.3 Statutory requirements: overview
			10.6.4 Time at which to construe and read documentary disclosures
			10.6.5 Prior art base
				10.6.5.1 Historical provisions
					10.6.5.1.1 Patents Act 1952
					10.6.5.1.2 Patents Act 1990: 30 April 1991 to 23 May 2001
					10.6.5.1.3 Patents Act 1990: 24 May 2001 to 31 March 2002
				10.6.5.2 Current prior art base
					10.6.5.2.1 Documents and acts
					10.6.5.2.2 Prior unpublished specifications: ‘whole of contents’
			10.6.6 Person skilled in the relevant art: the skilled addressee
			10.6.7 The meaning of ‘prior information made publicly available’
			10.6.8 Test for ‘anticipation’
				10.6.8.1 General principles
				10.6.8.2 Anticipation through prior use
				10.6.8.3 Implicit disclosure and inevitable outcome
			10.6.9 Prohibition on ‘mosaics’
			10.6.10 Making information available in certain circumstances: disclosure with consent
				10.6.10.1 Showing, use and publication at recognised exhibition
				10.6.10.2 Publication before learned society
				10.6.10.3 Working the invention in public for purposes of reasonable trial
				10.6.10.4 General grace period
			10.6.11 Making information available in certain circumstances: non-consensual disclosure
			10.6.12 Novelty by way of selection
			10.6.13 Relationship with inventive step and innovative step
		10.7 Inventive and innovative step: principles
			10.7.1 Introduction
			10.7.2 Time at which inventive or innovative step is raised
			10.7.3 Statutory requirements: overview
			10.7.4 Inventive step: prior art base and relevant information for purposes of comparison
				10.7.4.1 Patents Act 1952
				10.7.4.2 Patents Act 1990: 30 April 1991 to 31 March 2002
				10.7.4.3 Patents Act 1990: 1 April 2002 to 14 April 2013
				10.7.4.4 From 15 April 2013 to present
			10.7.5 Innovative step: prior art base and relevant information for purposes of comparison
			10.7.6 Innovative step: level of advance and assessment
			10.7.7 Summary of differences
		10.8 Inventive step: elements in the assessment
			10.8.1 Obvious: very plain
			10.8.2 Person skilled in the relevant art
			10.8.3 Common general knowledge
			10.8.4 Information a skilled person could be reasonably expected to ascertain, understand and regard as relevant
			10.8.5 Standard required: scintilla of inventiveness
			10.8.6 Expert evidence ‘tainted by hindsight’
			10.8.7 Secondary factors to assist assessment of obviousness
				10.8.7.1 Long-felt want and its successful solution
				10.8.7.2 Commercial success
				10.8.7.3 Expectation of success
				10.8.7.4 Problem and solution
			10.8.8 Objection to reliance on hindsight
		10.9 Threshold quality of ‘inventiveness’
			10.9.1 The issue
			10.9.2 Assessment of the threshold quality of ‘inventiveness’
			10.9.3 Innovation patents and the threshold issue
		10.10 Utility
			10.10.1 General
			10.10.2 Meaning of ‘useful’
		10.11 Secret use
			10.11.1 General
			10.11.2 Rationale
			10.11.3 The relationship with novelty
			10.11.4 The meaning of ‘secret’
			10.11.5 The meaning of ‘use’
			10.11.6 Use for reasonable trial or experiment only
			10.11.7 Use occurring solely in a confidential disclosure
			10.11.8 Patentee use for any purpose other than trade or commerce
			10.11.9 Use on behalf of the government
			10.11.10 Onus of proof
			10.11.11 Grace period
		10.12 Express exclusions from patentability
			10.12.1 Human beings and biological processes for their generation
			10.12.2 Plants and animals
			10.12.3 Contrary to law
			10.12.4 Mere mixtures
			10.12.5 International obligations
		10.13 Internal requirements for patent specifications: s 40
			10.13.1 Evolution of the specification and function of claims
			10.13.2 Statutory provisions for internal requirements for patent specifications
			10.13.3 Construction of specification for s 40 purposes
			10.13.4 Stages for consideration of s 40 requirements
			10.13.5 The relationship between s 40 and other grounds of invalidity
			10.13.6 Requirements relating to provisional specifications: s 40(1)
			10.13.7 Requirements relating to complete specifications: s 40(2)(a), (aa)
				10.13.7.1 Requirement to describe the invention fully
				10.13.7.2 Best method
				10.13.7.3 Time for meeting the requirements to describe the invention fully
			10.13.8 End with claims defining the invention: s 40(2)(b), (c)
			10.13.9 Claims must be clear and succinct: s 40(3)
			10.13.10 Claims must be supported by the matter disclosed in the specification: s 40(3)
			10.13.11 Consistory clause and fair basing
			10.13.12 Comparison with fair basis assessment: priority dates
			10.13.13 Claims must relate to one invention only: s 40(4)
	11 Patents for inventions: allocation of rights and ownership, the Register and dealings
		11.1 Entitlement to grant
			11.1.1 Criteria for inventorship
				11.1.1.1 The invention, conception of the invention or inventive concept
				11.1.1.2 The nature of the contribution
				11.1.1.3 Joint inventorship
			11.1.2 Entitled to have patent assigned to person: s 15(1)(b)
			11.1.3 Derives title to invention from inventor: s 15(1)(c)
		11.2 Ownership and co-ownership
			11.2.1 The notion of co-ownership
			11.2.2 Rights of co-owners
			11.2.3 Directions to co-owners
			11.2.4 Grant of patent
			11.2.5 Proprietary rights in the patent
		11.3 Employee inventions
			11.3.1 Express provisions in the employment contract
			11.3.2 Implied duty to assign inventions: the duty of good faith
			11.3.3 Fiduciary duties
		11.4 Crown use of patents for inventions
			11.4.1 Introduction
			11.4.2 Exploitation of inventions by the Crown
			11.4.3 Scope of the exploitation right
			11.4.4 ‘For the services of the Commonwealth or a State’
			11.4.5 Obligations of the Crown
			11.4.6 Procedures available to a patentee
			11.4.7 Remuneration and terms for exploitation
			11.4.8 Exploitation of invention to cease under court order
			11.4.9 Supply of products by Commonwealth to foreign countries
			11.4.10 Acquisition of inventions or patents by the Commonwealth
			11.4.11 Assignments of inventions to the Commonwealth
			11.4.12 Review of Crown use
		11.5 Dealings with inventions
			11.5.1 General principles
			11.5.2 Assignments
			11.5.3 Exclusive licences
			11.5.4 Non-exclusive and sole licences
		11.6 Compulsory licences
			11.6.1 Application
				11.6.1.1 Court is satisfied that certain conditions exist
				11.6.1.2 Court is satisfied that there is anti-competitive behaviour
			11.6.2 Effect of compulsory licence on other patents
			11.6.3 Operation of the order
			11.6.4 Remuneration payable
			11.6.5 Revocation
			11.6.6 Other circumstances for compulsory licence
			11.6.7 International requirements
			11.6.8 Patented pharmaceutical inventions
		11.7 Contracts
			11.7.1 Void conditions
			11.7.2 Conditions that are not void
			11.7.3 Defence to infringement proceedings
			11.7.4 Termination of contract after patent ceases to be in force
		11.8 The Register and official documents
			11.8.1 Contents of the Register
			11.8.2 Inspection and access to the Register
			11.8.3 False entries
			11.8.4 Evidence
			11.8.5 Power of patentee to deal with patent
	12 Patents for inventions: exploitation, infringement and revocation
		12.1 The role of the patent specification
		12.2 General principles for construction of patent specification
		12.3 Claim construction
			12.3.1 Introduction
			12.3.2 ‘Pith and marrow’
			12.3.3 Purposive construction
		12.4 Exclusive rights of the patentee
			12.4.1 Nature of exclusive rights
			12.4.2 Concept of an implied licence on sale
			12.4.3 No grant of positive rights
		12.5 Direct infringement
			12.5.1 Exclusive right to make a patented product
			12.5.2 Exclusive right to use
			12.5.3 Exclusive right to keep
			12.5.4 Exclusive right to import the invention
			12.5.5 Concept of parallel importation
			12.5.6 Authorisation
			12.5.7 Liability as a joint tortfeasor through ‘common design’ or ‘procurement’
		12.6 Contributory infringement
			12.6.1 Introduction
			12.6.2 ‘Supply’ of a ‘product’: s 117(1)
			12.6.3 Infringing uses: s 117(2)
				12.6.3.1 Section 117(2)(a)
				12.6.3.2 Section 117(2)(b)
					12.6.3.2.1 Not a staple commercial product
					12.6.3.2.2 Supplier had reason to believe the person would put it to that use
				12.6.3.3 Section 117(2)(c)
			12.6.4 Infringement of a product patent by supply of component parts
		12.7 Misleading and deceptive conduct
		12.8 Defences to infringement
			12.8.1 Use in or on foreign vessels, aircraft or vehicles
			12.8.2 Prior use of an invention: s 119
				12.8.2.1 Overview
				12.8.2.2 Current provision
			12.8.3 Acts for obtaining regulatory approval of pharmaceuticals and non-pharmaceuticals
			12.8.4 Private acts
			12.8.5 Experimental and research use
		12.9 Infringement proceedings
		12.10 Relief for infringement
		12.11 Non-infringement declarations
		12.12 Unjustified threats of infringement proceedings
		12.13 Revocation of patents
			12.13.1 Statutory provisions
			12.13.2 Lack of entitlement
			12.13.3 Fraud and false suggestion or misrepresentation
			12.13.4 Litigation: parties to proceedings
	13 Plant breeder’s rights
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Plant breeding: technical background
		13.3 Subject matter of PBR
		13.4 Registrability and grant of PBR
			13.4.1 The variety has a breeder
				13.4.1.1 Meaning of ‘discovery’
				13.4.1.2 Meaning of selective propagation
			13.4.2 The variety is distinct
				13.4.2.1 Common knowledge
			13.4.3 The variety is uniform
			13.4.4 The variety is stable
			13.4.5 The variety has not been exploited or has only recently been exploited
			13.4.6 Time at which the variety must meet the DUS criteria
		13.5 PBR applications
			13.5.1 Right to apply for PBR
			13.5.2 Form of application for PBR
			13.5.3 Priority dates
			13.5.4 Acceptance and rejection
			13.5.5 Variation of the application after acceptance
			13.5.6 Application after acceptance: substantive examination and test growing requirements
			13.5.7 Objections
			13.5.8 Access to the application and any objection
			13.5.9 Status of accepted applications
			13.5.10 Deposit of propagating material
		13.6 Grant of PBR
			13.6.1 Requirements
			13.6.2 Entry of details in the Register
			13.6.3 Effect of grant of PBR
			13.6.4 Term of protection
		13.7 Rights in PBR
			13.7.1 General nature of PBR in propagating material
			13.7.2 Extension beyond propagating material: essentially derived varieties
			13.7.3 Extension beyond propagating material: certain dependent plant varieties
			13.7.4 Extension beyond propagating material: harvested material
			13.7.5 Extension beyond propagating material: products obtained from harvested material
			13.7.6 Concept of exhaustion of rights
		13.8 Limitations on PBR
			13.8.1 Private, experimental or breeding purposes
			13.8.2 Farmer’s rights
			13.8.3 Breeder’s rights in harvested material and products from crops grown with farm-saved seed
			13.8.4 Other restrictions on rights
			13.8.5 Reasonable public access
		13.9 Ownership and co-ownership
		13.10 Exploiting PBR: licensing and other forms
			13.10.1 Assignment of PBR
			13.10.2 Licences
		13.11 Revocation of PBR
		13.12 Surrender of PBR
		13.13 Infringement of rights
			13.13.1 What amounts to infringement?
			13.13.2 Exemptions from infringement
			13.13.3 Prior user rights
		13.14 Enforcement of rights
			13.14.1 Actions for infringement
			13.14.2 Non-infringement declarations
			13.14.3 Unjustified threats of infringement proceedings
			13.14.4 Jurisdiction
			13.14.5 Offences and conduct by directors, servants and agents
		13.15 The Register
		13.16 Remedies
		13.17 Relationships between PBR and other intellectual property regimes
			13.17.1 PBR and patents
			13.17.2 PBR and trade marks
		13.18 Other international conventions
Part IV Trade marks
	14 Passing off
		14.1 History of passing off
			14.1.1 Common law and passing off
			14.1.2 Equity and passing off
		14.2 Elements of passing off
		14.3 The reputation of the plaintiff
			14.3.1 Location of reputation
			14.3.2 Ownership of reputation
			14.3.3 Joint ownership of reputation
			14.3.4 Dual ownership: honest concurrent user and use of own name
			14.3.5 Reputation in descriptive words and insignia: secondary meanings
			14.3.6 Reputation in packaging and appearance
			14.3.7 Reputation of marketing image
			14.3.8 Reputation in personality
			14.3.9 Abandonment of reputation
		14.4 The misrepresentation
			14.4.1 Misrepresentation, confusion and deception
			14.4.2 The target of the representation
			14.4.3 Misrepresentations of the trade origin of goods
			14.4.4 Different quality of goods
			14.4.5 Character merchandising
		14.5 Passing off and the internet
			14.5.1 Domain names
			14.5.2 Australian passing off cases and the internet
			14.5.3 Uniform dispute resolution policy
			14.5.4 Australian uniform dispute resolution policy
			14.5.5 Meta-tags
			14.5.6 Keyword advertising
		14.6 Effect of disclaimers
		14.7 A holistic perspective
		14.8 Damage
		14.9 Statutory causes of action
			14.9.1 Application of the legislation
			14.9.2 ‘In trade or commerce’
			14.9.3 ‘Engage in conduct’
			14.9.4 ‘Misleading or deceptive’
		14.10 Comparison with passing off
			14.10.1 Sections 29, 33 and 34 of sch 2
			14.10.2 Comparison with trade mark infringement
		14.11 Remedies
	15 Registered trade marks
		15.1 History of registered trade marks
		15.2 Drawbacks of passing off
		15.3 Functions of trade marks
			15.3.1 Reducing search costs
			15.3.2 Managing property interests
			15.3.3 Promoting the product
		15.4 Overview of the registration process
		15.5 Definition of a trade mark
		15.6 Definition of a sign
			15.6.1 Aspect of packaging, shape
			15.6.2 Colour
			15.6.3 Sounds
			15.6.4 Scents
		15.7 ‘Used or intended to be used’
			15.7.1 Unconditional intention
			15.7.2 Objective test of intention
			15.7.3 Use by others
		15.8 Distinguishing goods or services
			15.8.1 ‘Dealt with or provided’
			15.8.2 ‘In the course of trade’
			15.8.3 ‘By a person’
		15.9 Ownership
			15.9.1 First use in Australia
			15.9.2 Distributorship arrangements
			15.9.3 Creation or adoption of an overseas trade mark
			15.9.4 Persons who can own a trade mark
		15.10 Certification trade marks
			15.10.1 Requirements for registration
			15.10.2 Certification by other means
		15.11 Collective trade marks
		15.12 Defensive trade marks
		15.13 Overview of requirements at examination of standard trade mark applications
		15.14 National signs not to be used as trade marks
		15.15 Signs prescribed under s 39(2)
		15.16 Trade mark cannot be represented graphically: s 40
		15.17 Trade mark not distinguishing goods or services: s 41
			15.17.1 Inherent distinctiveness
			15.17.2 Partial inherent distinctiveness: use and intended use
			15.17.3 Distinctiveness through use
			15.17.4 Functional shapes
			15.17.5 Colour trade marks
		15.18 Scandalous trade marks: s 42
		15.19 Use contrary to law: s 42
		15.20 Deceptive or confusing trade marks: s 43
		15.21 Trade marks identical or similar to existing trade marks: s 44
			15.21.1 Substantially identical with
			15.21.2 Or deceptively similar to
			15.21.3 The context of the comparison
			15.21.4 Similar goods
			15.21.5 Similar services
			15.21.6 Closely related goods and services
			15.21.7 A global assessment
		15.22 Honest concurrent user
		15.23 Prior continuous user
		15.24 Other legislation
			15.24.1 Protection of sporting events
			15.24.2 Business names
			15.24.3 Wine Australia Act 2013
			15.24.4 Protection for particular industries
		15.25 Overview of grounds of opposition
		15.26 Another trade mark’s prior reputation: s 60
			15.26.1 Relationship with honest concurrent user and prior continuous user provisions
		15.27 Geographical indications: s 61
			15.27.1 Definition of a geographical indication
			15.27.2 Interpretation
			15.27.3 Exceptions
		15.28 Application made in bad faith
		15.29 Overview of rectification of the Register
		15.30 Amendment or cancellation by the Registrar
		15.31 Overview of rectification by the court
			15.31.1 Aggrieved person
		15.32 Errors and omissions: s 85
		15.33 Contravention of conditions or limits: s 86
		15.34 Effect of ss 24 and 25 on s 87
		15.35 Cancellation, removal or amendment: s 88(2)
		15.36 Transitional provisions and presumptive validity
			15.36.1 Fraud
			15.36.2 Contrary to s 28 of the repealed legislation
			15.36.3 Not distinctive when proceedings commence
		15.37 General discretion not to rectify
		15.38 Grounds for opposition
		15.39 Fraud, false suggestion or misrepresentation
		15.40 Use likely to deceive or cause confusion
		15.41 Rectification not granted if registered owner not at fault
		15.42 Removal for non-use
			15.42.1 General discretion
			15.42.2 Changes to non-use under the Trade Marks Amendment Act 2006
	16 Exploitation of registered trade marks
		16.1 Overview of infringement of trade marks
			16.1.1 Use as a trade mark
			16.1.2 Use as descriptive term rather than as trade mark
			16.1.3 Sign used to distinguish goods and services from others
			16.1.4 Substantially identical with or deceptively similar to
			16.1.5 Relevance of the defendant’s conduct
			16.1.6 Relevance of the plaintiff’s trade mark’s reputation
		16.2 Section 120(1)
			16.2.1 The goods or services for which the trade mark is registered
		16.3 Section 120(2)
		16.4 Section 120(3)
			16.4.1 Anti-dilution
			16.4.2 Well known
			16.4.3 Used in relation to unrelated goods or services
			16.4.4 Indicating a connection with the owner
			16.4.5 Owner’s interests adversely affected
			16.4.6 Anti-dilution or passing off?
			16.4.7 Comparison with passing off
		16.5 Oral use of a trade mark
		16.6 Two-dimensional device infringed by three-dimensional shape
		16.7 Parallel importing
			16.7.1 Parallel importing and exclusive licensees
			16.7.2 Section 122A
			16.7.3 Parallel importing and passing off
		16.8 Second-hand goods
		16.9 Trade mark infringement and the internet
		16.10 Breach of certain restrictions: s 121
		16.11 Groundless threats of legal proceedings
		16.12 Acts not constituting infringement
			16.12.1 In good faith
			16.12.2 Good faith use of a name: s 122(1)(a)
			16.12.3 Good faith use of a sign: s 122(1)(b)
			16.12.4 Good faith used to indicate purpose: s 122(1)(c)
			16.12.5 Use of trade mark for comparative advertising: s 122(1)(d)
			16.12.6 Exercising right to use trade mark: s 122(1)(e)
			16.12.7 Defendant may obtain registration of similar trade mark: s 122(1)(f)
			16.12.8 Non-infringement due to condition or limitation: s 122(1)(g)
			16.12.9 Disclaimers: s 122(1)(h)
		16.13 Trade mark applied by or with consent of registered owner
		16.14 Prior continuous use defence: s 124
		16.15 No damages for infringement during non-use period: s 127
		16.16 Remedies
		16.17 Assignment of trade marks
			16.17.1 Process of assignment
			16.17.2 Assignment of certification trade marks
			16.17.3 Assignment of collective trade marks
			16.17.4 Assignment of defensive trade marks
		16.18 Licensing of trade marks
			16.18.1 Quality control
			16.18.2 Financial control
			16.18.3 Other forms of control
			16.18.4 Franchising
			16.18.5 Assignment of licences
		16.19 Voluntary recording of interests and claims
		16.20 International treaty obligations
Part V Enforcement of rights
	17 Remedies and miscellaneous issues
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Pre-trial remedies
			17.2.1 Anton Piller orders
			17.2.2 Representative orders
			17.2.3 Interlocutory injunctions
		17.3 Permanent injunctions
		17.4 Groundless threats
		17.5 Damages
		17.6 Account of profits
		17.7 Criminal liability
		17.8 Customs seizure
		17.9 Jurisdiction
		17.10 Intellectual property and freedom of competition
			17.10.1 Per se prohibitions
			17.10.2 Rule of reason prohibitions
			17.10.3 Abolition of exemptions under s 51(3)
Index