Augmentative and Alternative Communication: Models and Applications

Introduction
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1. Augmentative and Alternative Communication: A General Introduction
	What Is Augmentative and Alternative Communication?
	Standard and NonStandard Forms of Communication
	Early Assumptions
	Terminology
	Learnability of Symbols
	A Model for AAC Communication
	AAC as Sender Support
	Less Is More?
	Alternative Access
		Adapting Manual Signs
	AAC as Support of Signal Transmission
		Multimodality
	AAC as Support of Receiver
	Beyond the Communicator–Partner Interaction
		Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model
	To Sum Up
	Points to Remember
	References
Chapter 2. Access and Message Management
	Typical Processes Involved in the MicroGenesis of Speech
		A Proposed Framework to Understand Access
		Rate of Expressive Communication
	Access
		Physical Access
		Mental Access
		Portability
	Sender Access Facilitation
		Intentionality
		Lexicon Accessibility
		Sets and Systems of Symbols: Do They Help in Lexical Access?
		Access to Message Assembly Techniques
		Message Externalizing
		Behavior
		Tools
	Cognitive Processes
	Message Transmission
		Multimodality Principle
		Materialization Principle
	The Receiver’s Role and Assistance from Communication Partner
		Help in the Physical Execution of the Message and Facilitated Communication (FC)
		Help in Cause-Effect Grasping
		Providing Choices
		Help with Scanning
		Lexical Help
		Selection Strategies (Y-N Questions)
		Strategic Feedback
		Content Feedback
		AAC Modeling
	Points to Remember
	References
Chapter 3. Nontech, Low-Tech, High-Tech, and Mobile Computing
	Assistive Technology
	Nontech, Low Tech, and High Tech
	Nontech Solutions
	Steering Technology
	Movement-Sensing Technologies
	Multi-Input Strategies
	Language Representation Technology
	Output Technology
		Nontech Output
		Device-Generated Speech
		Desktop and Laptops
		Tablets and Mobile Devices
	Lexicon Technology
		Lexicon Representation
		The Super Lexicon and Increasing Interconnectivity
		Growing and Accessible Databases
	Conversion Technology
		Word from/to Graphic Symbol
		Manual Sign from/to Word
		Simplification Technology
	Recognition Technology
		Speech Recognition
	Integration with Other NonCommunication Technology
	Conclusions
	Points to Remember
	References
Chapter 4. The Use of Symbols
	What Are “Symbols”?
	Symbol Classification
	Unaided AAC Symbols
	Unaided Symbols: Gestures
		Everybody Uses Gesture
	Conventional Gestures Are Manual Signs
	Linguistic Unaided Symbols
	Why Would Manual Signing Work?
		Simplified Sign System
		Key Word Signing
	Aided AAC Symbols
	Tangible Symbols
	Graphic Symbols
	Levels of Understandability of Graphic Symbols
		Recognizable Graphic Symbols
		Guessable Graphic Symbols
	Symbols with Low Picturability
	An Interesting Graphic Symbol System: Bliss-Words
	Participics: Graphic Symbol Sets for a Specific Group
	Animated Graphic Symbols
	Adding Sounds to Graphic Symbols
	Two Issues of Graphic Symbols: Polysemy and Sequentiality
		The Polysemy Issue
		The Sequentiality Issue
	Uses for Graphic Symbols
	Conclusions
	Points to Remember
	References
Chapter 5. Vocabulary and AAC
	Words, Graphic Symbols, Manual Signs as Lexical Elements
	Zipf’s Law, Core Vocabularies, and AAC
	Typical Word Development
		Balancing Number of Words with Accessibility Requirements: The Problem of Lexical Access
	Teaching or Acquiring Vocabulary — Who Determines or Influences Lexical Growth?
	The Core Vocabulary Approach
		Comparing AAC and Typical Word Development — A Valid or Flawed Approach?
		So, Is Core Vocabulary the Solution?
	The Initial Lexicon
		“Free Access” to Your Own Lexicon
	Measuring Lexical Learning
	Are Manual Signs the Lexical Equivalent of Words?
		Manual Sign Lexicons
	Are Graphic Symbols Really the Equivalent of Words?
	Doing more with less?
	Conclusion: The Vocabulary Challenge in AAC
	Points to Remember
	References
Chapter 6. AAC Intervention at the Prelinguistic and Early Linguistic Stages
	The Beginnings of Communication
	Forms of Communication
	Functions of Communication
		Behavior Regulation
		Social Interaction
		Joint Attention
	From Unintentional Behavior to Intentional Communication
		Understanding Cause-Effect
		The Use of Tools
		The Genesis of Internal Mental Representations
	Symbol Development
	When Does Communication Become Language?
		From Idiosyncratic to Conventionalized Symbols
		Communication and Symbol Development as Part of Interaction
		Symbols Become Part of a Larger Structural Multilevel Combinatorial System
		The Communication Matrix
	AAC Solutions for Early Intervention
	Determining the Communication System in Place
		The Partners
		The Communicative Environment
	Making Unintentional Behaviors Intentional
		Identify Potential Communicative Acts
		Select Accessible Symbols
	Transition to Linguistic Symbols
	AAC Applications for People with Severe Developmental Limitations of All Ages
	Make and Keep Communication Functional
	Address Problem Behavior
	Other Intervention Techniques
	Requesting and Rejecting
		Beyond Requesting and Rejecting
	Extension of Communicative Repertoire
	References
Chapter 7. AAC Applications for Individuals With Autism
	Autism Spectrum Disorders and the Acquisition of Communication Through AAC
	Barriers and Facilitators
	Predictors, Moderators, and Mediators
	The Specific Nature of Autism and AAC
	The Visual Modality, Visual Processing, and Attention
	Teaching Needs
	AAC and Social Skills in Individuals with an Autism Diagnosis
	References
Chapter 8. Language Intervention and AAC
	How Are the Main Mechanisms of Language Acquisition Affected by the Use of AAC?
		Biological Factors
		Language Exposure
		Cognitive Challenges
		Social Regulations
	What Is the Effect of the Decreased Output Possibilities?
	What Do We Know About the Developing Lexicon?
	What Do We Know About Phonology, Morphology, and Syntax Development?
		Morphology and Syntax
	How Does the Use of AAC Affect Literacy?
	How Does Software in AAC Devices Represent Language, and Does It Facilitate Language Acquisition?
	Language Learning Through Interaction
		Code-Switching
	Amount of Exposure to Communication and its Influence
	Learning Structures and Strategies
		Modeling
		Recasting
	Points to Remember
	References
Chapter 9. AAC and Literacy Development
	Literacy Acquisition and AAC Use: An Interesting Relation
	A Help or a Barrier?
	Three Abilities and Levels of Graphic Symbol Use
		(1) The Ability to Pay Attention to Specifics of a Pictorial Representation
		(2) The Ability to Understand the Referential-Pictorial Meaning of a Graphic Symbol
		(3) The Ability to Insert a Pictorial Representation in a Meaningful Way in a Sequence of Actions
	Can Graphic Symbols Aid Word Recognition Through Association?
	Are the Graphic Symbols a Help to Literacy?
	Literacy Activities and a Literacy Curriculum for AAC Users
	Different Challenges at Different Stages
	Literacy Activities as Compensatory AAC Strategies
	Measuring Competencies
	Becoming a Writer
	AAC and Literacy in the Future
	Points to Remember
	References
Chapter 10. AAC and Intervention with Acquired Communication Disorders
	An Increasing Prevalence
	The Nature of the Condition: Cognitive, Linguistic, or Motor
		What Is the Linguistic Nature of Disorder?
		What Is the Motor Nature of the Disorder?
		What Are the Cognitive Elements Affecting the Disorder?
		Other Questions
		Natural Speech
	Acquired Cognitive Challenges
	Acquired Linguistic Challenges
	Functional Considerations and Classifications
	Acquired Motor Impairment
		Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
		Brainstem Dysfunction
		Other Acquired Predominantly Motor Disorders
	AAC as Therapy and Rehabilitation Tool
	Short- and Long-Term Goals
		Effects of (Partially) Device-Based Language Therapy
		Acceptability
	TelePractice, Self-Therapy, and Distance Intervention
	Conclusion
	Points to Remember
	References
Chapter 11. AAC in Medical Environments
	Exchanging Medical Information with AAC Users
	Exchanging Medical Information with Non AAC Users
	AAC as a Short- and Long-Term Solution for Exchanging Medical Information
	References
Chapter 12. AAC and Assessment
	AAC Assessment Is Part of AAC Intervention
	Determination of AAC Needs
	Communicative Competence as Object of Assessment
	Assessment of the Larger Picture
	AAC Assessment Is an Ongoing Decision-making, Testing, and Adjusting Process
	Principles of AAC Assessment
		Quantification
		Can We Predict the Future?
	Dynamic Assessment
	Measuring Instruments
	Measuring Communication as Part of a Developmental Component
	Communication Competence Profile
	Assessment of PreLinguistic and Early Linguistic Functioning
	Language Tests and Their Usability
	Measuring of Specific AAC-Related Skills
	Conducting an Evaluation
	Functional, Developmental, and Dynamic Interpretation of the Data
		Feature Matching
		The “Fives Approach”
	Multidisciplinarity
		Working with Manufacturers and Sales Representatives
		Report Writing
		New Ways of Assessment and Data Gathering
		Costs and Funding
	Points to Remember
	References
Chapter 13. Intervention and AAC
	Anticipated and Desired Outcomes
		Who Sets the Goals? The Client and the Community of Practice
	Creating and Maintaining a Communicative Environment
	Planning or Natural Development?
	Evidence-Based Practice
	Points to Remember
	References
Chapter 14. AAC and the Community
	The Community — or the Communities
		Social Networks
		Making Meaning Through Interaction
	Multiple Challenges
	Attitudes and AAC
		Attitudes of Peers
	The AAC User as a Member of Cultures
		AAC Linguistic Diversity
	AAC and the Family
	AAC in Education
		Educational Goals and Organizing the Classroom
		Inclusiveness
		Universal Design for Learning
		Educational Practices and Opportunities
	Post-High School
	Transitions to Adult Life
	AAC in the Workplace
	AAC and the Development of Friendships
	The Virtual Community
	Communication Assistants
	Aging
	Connections with the World
	Risk of Abuse
	AAC Users and Research
	Points to Remember
	References
Chapter 15. The AAC Experience
	What Does It Mean to Be an AAC User?
	The Difference Made by the AAC Solution
	The Uniqueness of the AAC Experience
	A Community of AAC Users
		Where Do I Get Help?
		Discussions about What Works Best
		The Broken AAC Device
		The New and Better AAC Device — Or Not So Much Better
		Sexuality
	AAC as a Normal Phenomenon
	Perspectives of Hope, Expectations, and Fears
	Points to Remember
	References
Appendix 1. AAC and Natural Speech
Appendix 2. Case Discussions
Appendix 3. Discussion and Debate Topics
Appendix 4, Speech-Language and AAC Assessment Protocol
Index