At the Crossroads of Space and Time: Graves, Changing Society and Ideology on Saaremaa (Ösel), 9th-13th Centuries AD

INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1.RESEARCH HISTORY AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
1.1. Marxist Ideas in Soviet Archaeology
1.2. Development in Concepts of Estonian Prehistoric Society
1.3. Research History of Estonian Late Iron Age and Medieval Cemeteries
1.4. Research History of Late Iron Age and Early Medieval Graves on Saaremaa
1.5. Interpretation of Burial Rites
1.6. Summary
Chapter 2 BURIAL CUSTOMS IN THE EASTERN BALTIC AND THE NEIGHBOURING AREAS
2.1. Latvia and Lithuania
2.1.1. Eastern Lithuania
2.1.2. Central Lithuania (Aukshtaitia)
2.1.3. Semigallia
2.1.4. Zhemaitia
2.1.5. Couronia
a) West-Lithuania and the Southern Part of the Kurzeme Peninsula
b) North Kurzeme
2.1.6. Latgallia
2.1.7. Selonia
2.1.8. Livia
a) The Gauja Livs
b) The Daugava Livs
2.2. Estonia
2.2.1. Saaremaa and West Estonia
2.2.2. The Rest of the Estonian Mainland
2.3. North-West Russia
2.3.1. The Votes and the Izhorians
2.3.2. Karelia
2.4. Finland
2.5. Sweden
2.5.1. Mälar Area, Uppland
2.5.2. Gotland
2.6. Summary
Chapter 3 SAAREMAA IN WRITTEN SOURCES
3.1. Saaremaa in the Viking Age
3.2. Saaremaa 1100–1227
3.3. Saaremaa in the 13th and 14th Centuries
3.4. Summary
Chapter 4 STUDY OF CEMETERIES ON SAAREMAA
4.1. Stone Graves (9th–12th Century Cemeteries)
4.1.1. Methods for Identifying Burial Complexes
4.1.2. Käku Cemetery
4.1.3. Piila Cemetery
4.1.4. Kurevere Cemetery
4.1.5. Randvere Cemetery
4.1.6. Rahu Cemetery
a) 11th Century Cemetery
b) 12th Century Cemetery
Inhumation
4.1.7. Kogula Cemetery
4.1.8. Viltina Cemetery
a) Inhumations at the Rutiränk Cemetery
b) Weapons Find at Viltina Käo-Matsi
4.2. Inhumation Burials
4.2.1. Loona Cemetery
4.2.2. The Graveyard Around the Church of Valjala
4.2.3. Karja Cemetery
4.2.4. Viira Cemetery
4.3. Summary
Chapter 5 STUDY OF ARTEFACTS AND BURIAL COMPLEXES
5.1. The Sex and/or Gender Distribution of Burials
5.1.1. Weapons and Other 'Male Attributes' in Female Burials
5.1.2. 'Female Attributes' in Male Burials
5.1.3. Probable Burials of Male-Female Couples in Stone Cemeteries
5.2. Artefacts in Burial Complexes
5.2.1. Armament
5.2.1.1. Spearheads and Javelin-Heads
a) Spearheads Similar to the Petersen's type A
b) Socketed Spearheads with Convex Edges of the Blade (the Local Variant of Type G)
c) Spearheads of K-type
d) Spearheads of M-type
d) Javelin-Heads
5.2.1.2. Swords and Sword Fragments
5.2.1.3. Shields
5.2.2. Tools
5.2.2.1. Axes
a) Bearded Axes
b) Wide-Bladed Axes
5.2.2.2. Knives
a) Knife Sheaths
5.2.2.3. Scythes
5.2.2.4. Shears and a Spinning Whorl
5.2.2.5. Fire-Steels
5.2.2.6. Combs
5.2.2.7. Padlocks and Keys
5.2.2.8. Balances and Weights
5.2.2.9. Other Tools and Implements
5.2.3. Horse Harness
5.2.4. Belts and Belt Fittings
5.2.4.1. Belt Fittings in Cremation Graves
5.2.4.2. Medieval Belt Buckles
5.2.5. Jewellery
5.2.5.1. Penannular brooches
a) Penannular Brooches with Rolled Terminals
b) Penannular Brooches with Poppy-Shaped Terminals
c) Penannular Brooches with Faceted Terminals
d) Other Brooches in Cremation Graves
e) Other Brooches in Inhumation Graves
5.2.5.2. Triangular-Headed Pins
b.1) Pins with Leaf Decorations
b.2) Triangular-Headed Pins of Saaremaa Type
c) Decorative Pins in Inhumation Burials
d) Other Parts of Chain Arrangements
5.2.5.3. Bracelets
a) Bracelets in Cremation Burials
a.1) Spiral Bracelets
a.2) Bracelets of Saaremaa Type
a.3) Bracelets of Livian Type
a.4) Other Bracelets in Cremation Burials
b) Bracelets in Inhumation Graves
5.2.5.4. Neck-Rings
a) Compound Neck-Rings
b) Neck-Rings Twisted Together from Several Wires
5.2.5.5. Finger-Rings
a) The 10th–11th Century Finger-Rings
b) The 12th–13th Century Finger-Rings
5.2.5.6. Pendants
a) Cross-Shaped Pendants
b) Round Pendants
c) S-Shaped Pendants
d) Coin Pendants
e) Small Bells
5.2.5.7. Beads
5.2.6. Bronze Decoration on Garments
5.2.7. Pottery
5.2.8. Iron Rivets and Nails
5.3. Analysis of the Grave Goods
5.3.1. NAT in Osilian Graves
Jewellery:
Weapons:
Horse harness:
Other accessories:
Other artefacts:
5.3.2. The Changing of Cemeteries in the Course of Time
a) NAT in Graves of Different Periods
b) NAT in the Burials of Men, Women and Children
c) NAT in Cemeteries of Various Socio-Political Locations
5.3.3. Social Manifestation
5.4. Summary
Chapter 6 CHANGES IN BURIAL RITES
6.1. Burial Rites in the Late Iron Age
6.1.1. Grave Forms
a) Early Viking Age Graves
b) Cemeteries with Stone Circle Graves and Stone Cairns
c) Animal Bones in Cremation Graves
d) Deposits with Demarcating and/or Protective Functions
e) Rituals and Sacrifices at Graves After the Funeral
6.2. Burial Rites in the Early Medieval Period
6.2.1. Ideological Changes
6.2.2. (Semi-) Christian Burials
a) Inhumation Burials Before Official Christianisation
b) Other Cemeteries Outside Churchyards
c) Burials in Churchyards
6.3. Summary
Chapter 7 CHANGING TIMES, CHANGING SOCIETY
7.1. Political Circumstances
7.2. Social Structure
7.2.1. Saaremaa in the First Half of the Viking Age
7.2.2. Saaremaa in the 10th Century
7.2.3. Saaremaa in the 11th Century
7.2.4. Saaremaa in the 12th Century
a) Trade and Plundering Economy
b) Administrative Division and Taxation
c) Social Stratification on 12th Century Saaremaa
d) The Position of Women in 12 Century Osilian Society
7.2.5. Saaremaa in the 13th and 14th Centuries
a) Continuity Between Late Iron Age Centres and Feudal Manors
b) Continuity Between Chieftains and Feudal Vassals
7.3. From Paganism to Christianity
7.3.1. Cross-Shaped Pendants and the Phenomenon of Primisignatio
7.3.2. The Role of Women in the Christianisation Process
7.3.3. Christianisation of the Burial Customs
7.3.4. The Churches
7.4. Summary
Conclusions
Kokkuvõte
References
Abbreviations
Appendix
Plates 1-139
APPENDIX
PLATES