Assurance Technologies Principles and A Product, Process, and System Safety Perspective

ASSURANCE TECHNOLOGIES PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES......Page 4
CONTENTS......Page 8
PREFACE......Page 22
1.1 Introduction......Page 24
1.2 Cheaper, Better, and Faster Products......Page 25
1.4.2 Budget Consistent with Objectives......Page 28
1.4.3.1 Managing Safety-Related Risk......Page 29
1.4.3.3 Risk Types......Page 30
1.5 Is System Assurance a Process?......Page 31
Further Reading......Page 33
2.1 Probabilistic Designs......Page 34
2.2.1 Construction of a Histogram and the Empirical Distribution......Page 35
2.2.2 Computing Reliability......Page 37
2.2.3 Failure Rate and Hazard Function......Page 38
2.3 Normal Distribution......Page 39
2.4 Log Normal Distribution......Page 45
2.5 Exponential Distribution......Page 48
2.6 Weibull Distribution......Page 52
2.7 Data Analysis with Weibull Distribution......Page 55
2.8 Discrete Distributions......Page 59
2.8.1 Binomial Distribution......Page 60
2.8.2 Poisson Distribution......Page 61
References......Page 62
Further Reading......Page 63
3.1 Reliability Principles......Page 64
3.2 Reliability in the Design Phase......Page 67
3.2.2 Conducting Design Reviews......Page 68
3.2.2.1 Preliminary Design Review......Page 69
3.2.2.2 Lessons Learned and Checklists......Page 70
3.2.3 Reliability Allocation......Page 71
3.2.4.1 Series Model......Page 72
3.2.4.2 Parallel Model......Page 73
3.2.5 Reliability Prediction......Page 74
3.2.6 Failure-Mode, Effects, and Criticality Analysis......Page 77
3.2.8 Other Analysis Techniques......Page 84
3.2.9.2 Fault Tolerance......Page 85
3.3 Reliability in the Manufacturing Phase......Page 88
3.4 Reliability in the Test Phase......Page 89
3.4.1 Reliability Growth Testing......Page 90
3.4.2 Tests for Durability......Page 93
3.4.3 Testing for Low Failure Rates......Page 98
3.4.4 Burn-in and Screening......Page 105
3.5 Reliability in the Use Phase......Page 109
3.6.2 Unreliability and Hazards......Page 110
3.6.4 Potential System Accidents......Page 111
3.6.7 Reliability and Safety Misconceptions......Page 112
3.6.7.1 Redundancy......Page 113
3.6.7.3 Concepts of Probability......Page 114
3.6.7.4 Familiarization to Automation......Page 115
3.6.7.5 Reliable Software and Safety Considerations......Page 116
3.6.7.6 Reliable Analyses and Safety Applications......Page 118
3.7 Topics for Student Projects and Theses......Page 123
References......Page 124
Further Reading......Page 125
4.1 Maintainability Engineering Principles......Page 126
4.2.1 Developing Maintainability Specifications......Page 129
4.2.2 Design Review for Maintainability......Page 130
4.2.4 FMECA for Maintainability......Page 132
4.2.5 Maintainability Prediction......Page 133
4.2.6 Life-Cycle Cost Analysis......Page 134
4.2.8 Design for Ease of Maintenance......Page 137
4.2.9 Design for MM of Testing......Page 141
4.3.1 Maintainability for Existing Equipment......Page 145
4.3.2 Maintainability for New Equipment......Page 147
4.4 Maintainability in the Test Stage......Page 149
4.4.4 Maintenance Level Tests......Page 150
4.5.1 Prediction and Reduction of Limited-Life Items......Page 151
4.5.2 Monitoring and Predicting Operational Availability......Page 152
4.6.1 Remote Maintenance Safety and Security......Page 155
4.6.3.1 Stress–Strength Analysis......Page 157
4.6.3.3 Safety Margin and a Hazard Control......Page 158
4.6.3.4 Integration Considerations Between Safety-Related Models and Hazard Analysis......Page 159
4.6.4 Hazard Analysis in Support of Maintenance......Page 160
4.7 Topics for Student Projects and Theses......Page 167
Further Reading......Page 168
5.1 System Safety Principles......Page 170
5.1.3 Technical Risk Analysis......Page 173
5.2 System Safety in Design......Page 176
5.2.1 Criteria for a Safe Design......Page 177
5.2.3 Preliminary Hazard Analysis......Page 179
5.2.4 Subsystem Hazard Analysis......Page 184
5.2.5 Fault-Tree Analysis......Page 186
5.2.6 Cut Set Analysis......Page 190
5.2.8 Maintenance Engineering Safety Analysis......Page 192
5.2.9 Event Trees......Page 193
5.2.10 Operating and Support Hazard Analysis......Page 195
5.2.12 Sneak Circuit Analysis......Page 197
5.3.2 Manufacturing Controls for Safety......Page 199
5.4.1 Testing Principles......Page 201
5.4.2 Prerequisites for Developing Appropriate Tests......Page 202
5.4.4 Production Tests......Page 203
5.4.5 Tests for Human-Related Errors......Page 204
5.4.8 Analyzing Test Data—The Right Way......Page 205
5.5.2 Integrity of the Procedures......Page 206
5.5.4 Accident/Incident Investigation......Page 207
5.6 Analyzing System Hazards and Risks......Page 208
5.6.1 SDHA Process Development......Page 209
5.6.2.2 Adverse Event Model......Page 210
5.6.2.3 Life Cycle of a System Accident......Page 211
5.6.2.4 Potential Pitfalls in Logic Development......Page 212
5.6.2.7 Deductive and Inductive Approaches Toward Scenario Development......Page 213
5.7.1 Scenario Themes......Page 214
5.7.2 Primary Hazards......Page 215
5.7.3 Initiators......Page 216
5.7.4 Contributors......Page 217
5.8 Topics for Student Projects and Theses......Page 218
References......Page 219
Further Reading......Page 220
6.1 Quality Assurance Principles......Page 222
6.2 Quality Assurance in the Design Phase......Page 224
6.2.1 Product Design Review for Quality......Page 225
6.2.1.1 Quality Function Deployment......Page 226
6.2.1.3 Quality Loss Function......Page 227
6.2.2 Process Design Review for Quality and Yield......Page 229
6.2.2.1 Capital Equipment Analysis......Page 230
6.2.3 Design Optimization for Robustness......Page 232
6.2.3.1 Shainin Approach......Page 233
6.2.3.2 Taguchi Approach......Page 234
6.2.4 Process FMECA......Page 237
6.2.5.2 Process Control Plans......Page 240
6.2.5.3 Component Procurement Quality Plans......Page 241
6.3.1 Evaluation of Pilot Run......Page 243
6.3.2 Process Control......Page 244
6.3.2.1 Identifying Causes of Variation......Page 245
6.3.2.2 Verifying the Influence of Causes......Page 247
6.3.2.3 Statistical Process Control......Page 249
6.3.3 PPM Control for World-Class Quality......Page 251
6.3.4 Working with Suppliers......Page 253
6.3.5 PPM Assessment......Page 254
6.4 Quality Assurance in the Test Phase......Page 255
6.5 Quality Assurance in the Use Phase......Page 256
References......Page 257
Further Reading......Page 258
7.1 Logistics Support Principles......Page 260
7.2.1 Logistics Specifications for Existing Products......Page 261
7.2.2 Logistics Specifications for New Products......Page 263
7.2.4 Logistics Support Analysis......Page 264
7.2.5 FMECA for Logistics Support Analysis......Page 265
7.2.6 Time-Line Analysis......Page 267
7.3 Logistics Engineering During the Manufacturing Phase......Page 268
7.5 Logistics Engineering in the Use Phase......Page 269
7.5.1.3 RCM Strategies......Page 270
7.5.2 Measuring the Effectiveness of Logistics Engineering......Page 273
7.6.2 Analysis of Changing Risks......Page 274
7.6.3.1 Production and Deployment Considerations......Page 275
7.6.3.3 Production Inspection......Page 276
7.6.3.4 Quality Control and Data Analysis......Page 277
7.6.3.5 Storage, Transportation, and Handling......Page 278
7.6.3.7 Operations, Maintenance, and Upkeep......Page 279
7.6.3.8 Retirement and Disposal......Page 281
References......Page 282
Further Reading......Page 283
8.1 Human Engineering Principles......Page 284
8.2.1 Use of Checklists and Standards in Specifications......Page 285
8.2.3 Using Lessons Learned......Page 288
8.2.4 Review of Hazard Analyses......Page 289
8.3.1.1 Errors of Illusion......Page 291
8.3.2 Preventing Inspection Errors......Page 292
8.4.1 Tests for Stereotype Behavior......Page 293
8.4.2 Tests for Emergency Preparedness......Page 294
8.4.4 Tests for the Human–Machine Interface......Page 296
8.6.1 Human Variability......Page 297
8.6.5 Human Motivation......Page 298
8.7 Real Time and Latent Errors......Page 299
8.8.2 Link Analysis......Page 300
8.8.4 Behavior Sampling......Page 302
8.8.6 Life Support/Life Safety Analysis......Page 304
8.8.8 Human Reliability......Page 305
8.8.9 Technique for Error Rate Prediction (THERP)......Page 306
8.8.10 A Technique for Human Event Analysis (ATHEANA)......Page 307
8.8.11 Human Error Criticality Analysis (HECA)......Page 308
8.9 Topics for Student Projects and Theses......Page 309
References......Page 310
Further Reading......Page 311
9.1 Software Performance Principles......Page 312
9.1.1 Software Quality......Page 313
9.1.2 Software Reliability......Page 314
9.1.3 Software System Safety......Page 316
9.1.5 Software Logistics Engineering......Page 317
9.1.6 Some Important Definitions......Page 318
9.2.1 Software Quality Assurance in Design......Page 320
9.2.2 Software Reliability in Design......Page 321
9.2.2.1 Software Design Techniques for Reliability......Page 322
9.2.3 Software Maintainability in Design......Page 323
9.2.4 Software System Safety in Design......Page 324
9.2.4.1 Software Safety Risk Assessment......Page 325
9.2.4.2 Software Safety Tools......Page 326
9.2.5 Software Logistics Engineering......Page 328
9.2.6.2 The Methodology......Page 329
9.2.6.3 Demonstration of Methodology......Page 330
9.2.6.5 Other Uses of SSFMEA......Page 332
9.2.8 Software Design Review Checklist......Page 333
9.3.1 Coding Errors......Page 346
9.3.2 Quantifying Software Errors......Page 347
9.3.3 Coding Error Prevention......Page 349
9.4.1 Testing for Quality......Page 351
9.4.4 Testing for Software Safety......Page 352
9.4.5 Testing for Overall Qualification......Page 353
9.5 Software Performance in the Use Stage......Page 354
References......Page 355
10.1 Introduction......Page 358
10.2 System Effectiveness Principles......Page 359
10.3 Implementing the Programs......Page 362
10.4 Managing by Life-Cycle Costs......Page 364
10.6 Authors’ Recommendations......Page 366
10.7 System Risk and Effects on System Effectiveness......Page 367
10.7.3 Synergistic Risks......Page 368
10.7.4 Controlling Risks with Effective System Safety Requirements and Standards......Page 369
10.7.5 Effective System Safety Requirements and Standards......Page 370
10.7.5.2 General System Safety Requirements......Page 371
10.7.5.4 Requirements Testing......Page 372
10.7.5.7 Requirements Revision......Page 373
10.7.5.11 Redundant Requirements......Page 374
10.7.7 Other Indicators of System Effectiveness or Success......Page 375
References......Page 376
Further Reading......Page 377
11.1.1 Specific Safety Programs......Page 378
11.2.1 Product Safety Management......Page 379
11.2.2 Process Safety Management......Page 381
11.2.3 System Safety Management......Page 385
11.3 Resource Allocation and Cost Analysis in Safety Management......Page 391
11.4 Topics for Student Projects and Theses......Page 392
Further Reading......Page 393
12.2 Statistical Analysis Techniques Used Within Safety Analysis......Page 396
12.3 Using Statistical Control in Decision-Making for Safety......Page 399
12.4 Behavior Sampling......Page 402
12.5 Calculating Hazardous Exposures to the Human System......Page 403
12.6 Topics for Student Projects and Theses......Page 406
Further Reading......Page 407
13.1.2 Modeling Within Safety Analysis......Page 408
13.1.2.1 Overviews and Models......Page 409
13.1.2.3 Scenarios, Reality, and Benefits......Page 410
13.1.4 Narrative Reports Versus Tabular Formats......Page 413
13.2 Designing Formats for Conducting Analysis and Reporting Results......Page 414
13.3 Documentation Reports......Page 416
13.4.1 Hammer Model......Page 417
13.4.2 Complex Scenario Models......Page 418
13.4.3 Fishbone Diagrams......Page 419
13.5.1 Complex Interactions......Page 420
13.6 Operating and Support Hazard Analysis Example......Page 421
Further Reading......Page 431
14.1 Complex System Analysis......Page 434
14.2 System Context......Page 435
14.3.2 Understanding System Functions......Page 436
14.4.1 Software Malfunction......Page 437
14.4.4 Complexity, Understanding Risks, and System States......Page 440
14.4.8 Latent Hazards Throughout the Life Cycle......Page 441
14.4.11 Understanding Transfer and Switching Complications......Page 442
14.6.1 Controls, Mitigations, and Added Complexities......Page 443
14.7 Initiators and Contributors: The Errors Associated with Software......Page 444
14.8.4 Test Coverage Monitoring......Page 449
14.9 Existing Legacy Systems, Reusable Software, Commercial Off-the-Shelf (COTS) Software, and Nondevelopment Items (NDIs)......Page 450
14.10 Topics for Student Projects and Theses......Page 451
Further Reading......Page 452
APPENDIX A: REFERENCE TABLES......Page 454
APPENDIX B: AN OUTSTANDING APPLICATION OF ASSURANCE TECHNOLOGIES......Page 464
INDEX......Page 472