Assessment is Essential

Title
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1 Why Is Assessment Essential?
	A Broad View: Assessment and Democratic Values
	Th e Key Question—Will Th is Help My Students Learn?
	Equal Access to Educational Opportunity
	Self-Governing Skills for Participation in a Democracy
	Traditional Functions of Schools: Sorting and Performance
	Transforming Functions of Schools: Helping All Children Learn with Mastery Goals
	Assessment Tasks Th at Enhance Mastery Goals
	Promoting Mastery Goals through Assessment: Examples
	Th e Importance of Critical Th inking
	An Overview of Assessment
	Purposes of Assessment
	Action Research and the Inquiry Stance
	Inquiry Stance
	Inquiry Stance and Action Research
	Ethics and Assessment
	Do No Harm
	Avoid Score Pollution
	Examples from Classrooms and Headlines
	Judgment Calls
	Harder Judgment Calls
	Your Turn
	Final Th oughts on Ethics and Assessment
	Key Chapter Points
	Helpful Websites
	Chapter Review Questions
	References
CHAPTER 2 Learning Goals: Th e First Step
	Introduction
	Defi ning and Using Learning Goals
	Backward Design
	Benefi ts of Specifying Learning Goals
	Where Do Learning Goals Come From?
	State and National Content Standards
	District Curriculum Guides
	Teacher Editions
	Too Many Learning Goals, Too Little Time: Selecting Learning Goals
	How Do I Write Good Learning Goals?
	Selecting the Verb
	Writing the Noun Phrase
	Specifi city of Learning Goals
	Simplifying Learning Goals
	Student Input to Learning Goals
	Learning Goals, Critical Th inking Skills, and Taxonomies
	Cognitive Taxonomies
	Aff ective and Psychomotor Taxonomies
	Tables of Specifi cations
	Benefi ts of a Table of Specifi cations
	Using a Modifi ed Table of Specifi cations for Test Design
	Challenges in Using a Table of Specifi cations
	Case Study Applications
	Key Chapter Points
	Helpful Websites
	Chapter Review Questions
	References
CHAPTER 3 Diagnostic Assessment: Ensuring Student Success from the Beginning
	Introduction
	Before You Begin: High Expectations and Behaviors Th at Convey Th em
	Choose Your Sources of Information Wisely
	Before Classes Start
	Aft er You Meet Your Students
	As You Begin a New Unit of Instruction
	Key Steps in Designing Pre-Unit Diagnostic Assessments
	1. Prioritize Content from Your Learning Goals
	2. Design and Administer Brief Measures of Top Priority Content
	3. Gather Other Useful Information
	4. Analyze Results of Preassessment to Determine Unit Content and Instructional Strategies
	Making the Most of Your Diagnostic Assessments
	Accommodations for Diverse Learners in Diagnostic Assessment
	Students with Fine Motor Diffi culties
	Students Learning English
	Students Who Have Already Mastered the Learning Goals
	Students Who Have Diffi culty Focusing Attention
	Students with Literacy Skills Below Typical Peers
	Students Who Lack Familiarity with U.S. School Culture
	Final Th oughts on Accommodation for Diagnostic Assessment
	Case Study Application
	Key Chapter Points
	Helpful Websites
	Chapter Review Questions
	References
CHAPTER 4 Formative Assessment: Ongoing Assessment to Promote Student Success
	Introduction
	Formative Assessment: Th e Essential Link Between Teaching and Learning
	Element 1: Make Students Aware of the Learning Goals and Evaluation Standards
	Element 2: Provide Formative Tasks Th at Involve Understanding and Application
	Element 3: Provide Students with Feedback to Close Any Gaps
	Element 4: Avoid Grading Formative Tasks
	Element 5: Off er Students an Opportunity to Close Any Gaps
	Element 6: Use Formative Assessment for Enhancing Instruction
	Accommodations for Diverse Learners for Formative Assessment
	Case Study Application
	Key Chapter Points
	Helpful Websites
	Chapter Review Questions
	References
CHAPTER 5 Progress Monitoring: Assessment as a Motivational Tool
	Introduction
	Goal Setting as the First Key Step
	Commitment
	Specifi c, Shorter-Term Goals
	Formative Tasks as the Foundation for Monitoring Growth
	Two Approaches to Progress Monitoring
	Mastery Monitoring
	General Outcome Measurement
	Issues to Consider: Progress Monitoring
	Summarizing Data for Groups
	Frequency Distributions
	Measures of Central Tendency
	Building a Useful Table: An Analysis and Communication Tool
	Disaggregation Uncovers Hidden Trends
	Case Study Application
	Key Chapter Points
	Helpful Websites
	Chapter Review Questions
	References
CHAPTER 6 Essential Characteristics of Assessment
	Introduction
	Reliability: Are We Getting Consistent Information?
	Sources of Error
	Suffi ciency of Information
	Improving Reliability in Classroom Assessments
	Validity: Will Scores Support Us in Making Good Decisions?
	Importance of Purpose in Considering Validity
	Evidence for Validity
	Improving Validity in Classroom Assessments
	Relationship Between Reliability and Validity
	Avoiding Bias in Assessments
	Unfair Penalization
	Opportunity to Learn
	Teacher Bias
	Representing the Diversity of the Classroom
	Stereotypical Representation
	Contextual Invisibility
	Historical Distortions
	Keeping the Th ree Democratic Values in Mind
	Equal Access to Educational Opportunity
	Skills for Democratic Participation
	Development of Critical Th inking Skills
	Case Study Application
	Key Chapter Points
	Helpful Websites
	Chapter Review Questions
	References
CHAPTER 7 Teacher-Made Assessments: Multiple-Choice and Other Selected-Response Items
	Introduction
	Aligning Items with Learning Goals and Th inking Skills
	Selected-Response Formats
	Multiple-Choice Formats
	True-False Formats
	Matching Formats
	Interpretive Exercises and Assessing Higher-Level Cognitive Levels
	Guidelines for Item Development
	General Guidelines for All Selected-Response Formats
	Guidelines for Specifi c Item Formats
	Pitfalls to Avoid: Top Challenges in Designing Selected-Response Items
	Constructing the Assessment
	Th e Value of Student-Generated Items and Critical Th inking
	Accommodations for Diverse Learners: Selected- Response Items
	Students with Fine Motor Diffi culties
	Students with Sensory Challenges
	Students Learning English
	Students Who Have Already Mastered the Learning Goals
	Students Who Have Diffi culty Focusing Attention
	Students with Literacy Skills Below Th ose of Typical Peers
	Students Who Lack Familiarity with School Culture
	Case Study Application
	Key Chapter Points
	Helpful Websites
	Chapter Review Questions
	References
CHAPTER 8 Teacher-Made Assessments: Short Answer and Essay
	Introduction
	Aligning Items with Learning Goals and Th inking Skills
	Constructed-Response Formats
	Short-Answer Formats
	Essay Formats
	Guidelines for Item Development
	General Guidelines for All Constructed-Response Formats
	Guidelines for Specifi c Item Formats
	Constructing the Assessment
	Scoring the Assessment
	Scoring Short Answers
	Scoring Essays
	Developing a Scoring Guide
	Factors Contributing Error to Essay Scores
	Pitfalls to Avoid: Top Common Challenges in Constructed-Response Items and Scoring Guides
	Essay Pitfalls
	Scoring Guide Pitfalls
	Th e Value of Student-Generated Items and Critical Th inking
	Accommodations for Diverse Learners: Constructed-Response Items
	Case Study Application
	Key Chapter Points
	Helpful Websites
	Chapter Review Questions
CHAPTER 9 Teacher-Made Assessments: Performance Assessments
	Introduction
	Aligning Items with Learning Goals and Th inking Skills
	When to Use Performance Assessments
	Advantages and Disadvantages of Performance Assessments
	Guidelines for Task Development
	Specify the Understanding and Skills to Be Addressed
	Build Meaningfulness into the Task
	Determine the Response Format
	Consider the Materials and the Resources Required
	Address the Degree of Structure for a Task
	Monitor the Reading Demands
	Address Logistics in Task Directions
	Scoring the Assessment
	Weighting Performance Criteria
	Attaching a Grade Scale
	Pitfalls to Avoid: Top Challenges in Performance Assessments
	Keep the Task Related to Learning Goals
	Provide Practice Before Assigning the Task
	Limit the Number of Performance Criteria in the Rubric
	Th e Value of Student-Generated Items and Critical Th inking
	Accommodations for Diverse Learners: Performance Tasks
	Students with Fine Motor Diffi culties
	Students with Sensory Challenges
	Students Learning English
	Students Who Have Already Mastered the Learning Goals
	Students Who Have Diffi culty Focusing Attention
	Students with Literacy Skills Below Th ose of Typical Peers (e.g., Learning Disability)
	Students Who Lack Familiarity with School Culture
	Case Study Application
	Key Chapter Points
	Helpful Websites
	Chapter Review Questions
	References
CHAPTER 10 Grading and Communicating About Student Achievement
	Introduction
	Why Does Grading Cause So Many Problems?
	Advocate Versus Evaluator
	Symbolic Value of Grades
	Lack of Agreement on the Judgment Process
	Ambiguous Meaning of Grades
	Th e Grading Decision Process
	Follow School District Grading Policy
	Base Grading on Summative Assessments
	Ensure Quality of Assessment
	Involve Students
	Weigh Recent and Consistent Performance Most Heavily
	Avoid Unduly Weighting Factors Unrelated to Mastery of the Learning Goals
	Avoid Using Grades as Rewards and Punishments
	Review Borderline Cases Carefully
	A Special Case: Students with Disabilities
	Grading as a Skill
	Types of Grading Approaches
	Basis for Comparison
	Types of Summarizing Systems
	Portfolios and Communicating About Achievement
	Portfolio Purposes
	Implementation Issues
	Portfolio Advantages and Limitations
	Key Chapter Points
	Helpful Websites
	Chapter Review Questions
	References
CHAPTER 11 Large-Scale Standardized Tests and the Classroom
	Introduction
	Defi nitions Related to Large-Scale Standardized Testing
	Criterion-Referenced Scoring and Norm-Referenced Scoring
	Achievement Tests and Aptitude Tests
	Misconceptions Related to Large-Scale Testing
	Misconception 1. Obtained Score Represents the True Score
	Misconception 2. Only Commercially Published Multiple-Choice Tests Can Be Standardized
	Misconception 3. Norm-Referenced Tests Compare People Who Took the Test at the Same Time
	Misconception 4. Standardized Tests with Multiple- Choice Formats Address Basic Facts Only
	Misconception 5: Using Large-Scale Tests to Address Individual Student Needs
	Benefi ts and Pitfalls of Large-Scale Assessments
	Comparisons
	Curriculum Concerns
	Addressing Improvement
	Preparation for and Administration of Large-Scale Tests
	Preparation for Tests
	Administration of Large-Scale Tests
	Large-Scale Test Accommodations for Diverse Learners
	Reliability and Validity in Large-Scale Tests
	Reliability
	Validity
	Interpreting Norm-Referenced Tests
	Foundational Issues in Interpretation of Test Scores
	Importance of the Norm Group
	Comparing the Individual to the Norm Group
	Interpreting Criterion-Referenced Tests
	Interpreting Large-Scale Tests for Students and Parents
	Explain Purpose and Content
	Explain the Basis for Comparison
	Explain the Infl uence of Error on Scores
	Choose One Type of Score to Explain All Parts of the Test
	Put the Scores in the Larger Context
	Work as Partners to Determine the Next Steps
	Using Large-Scale Test Results in the Classroom
	Key Chapter Points
	Helpful Websites
	Chapter Review Questions
	References
CHAPTER 12 Tying It All Together
	Introduction
	Six Essential Guidelines
	Guideline 1: Begin with the End in Mind
	Guideline 2: Find Out What Students Know
	Guideline 3: Check as You Go
	Guideline 4: Teach Students to Check as You Go
	Guideline 5: Use Rubrics to Reinforce Attainment of the Learning Goals
	Guideline 6: Assess Yourself
	Assessment Eff ectiveness and Effi ciency
	Choose Assessment Opportunities Selectively
	Selectively Analyze Student Work
	Carefully Target the Feedback You Provide
	Build in Time for Self- and Peer Review
	Structure Record Keeping to Encourage Student Self-Monitoring
	Develop an “Assessment Bank”
	Enlist Students in Assessment Design
	Assessment in the Context of a Democratic Society: Classroom Examples
	Center for Inquiry
	Knowledge Is Power Program (KIPP)
	Key to Assessment in the Context of Democratic Participation
	Formative Assessment and Equal Access
	Formative Assessment and Self-Governing Skills
	Formative Assessment and Critical Th inking
	Now It’s Your Turn: Setting Personal Goals for Classroom Assessment
	Personal Goal-Setting Steps
	Key Chapter Points
	Chapter Review Questions
	Helpful Websites
	References
Glossary
Index