ARCHAEOLOGIST'S LABORATORY : the analysis of archaeological evidence.

Preface
About the Book
	References
Contents
About the Author
List of Figures
List of Tables
Part I
	Introduction to Part I
		Quality in Archaeological Data
		Summary
		References Cited
	1: What Are Data? Measurements and Errors
		1.1 Scales of Measurement
		1.2 Measurement Errors and Uncertainty
			1.2.1 Precision
			1.2.2 Reliability
			1.2.3 Bias
			1.2.4 Errors of Classification
			1.2.5 Cumulative Errors
			1.2.6 Outliers
			1.2.7 Other Sources of Error
			1.2.8 Propagation of Errors
		1.3 Confidence and Validity in Measurements
			1.3.1 Validity
		1.4 Quality Assurance and Quality Control
			1.4.1 Tolerance
			1.4.2 Audits and Inter-Rater Reliability
		1.5 How Much Error Is Reasonable?
		1.6 Summary
		References Cited
	2: Summarizing Data: Descriptive Statistics
		2.1 Central Tendency
		2.2 Dispersion
		2.3 Skewness and Kurtosis
		2.4 When Are Means Meaningless?
		2.5 Summaries of Nominal and Ordinal Distributions
		2.6 Summary
		References Cited
	3: Systematics: Classification and Grouping
		3.1 Systematics
		3.2 Classes of Classification and Grouping Arrangements
			3.2.1 Paradigmatic Classification
			3.2.2 Taxonomic Classification
		3.3 Grouping
			3.3.1 Bounded Grouping
			3.3.2 Central-Tendency Grouping
			3.3.3 Attribute Association
		3.4 Misclassification and Uncertainty in Systematics
			3.4.1 Fuzzy Classification and Fuzzy Sets
			3.4.2 Fuzzy Grouping and Bayesian Grouping as Responses to Uncertainty
		3.5 ``Automatic´´ Classifications and Artificial Intelligence
		3.6 Practical Considerations
		3.7 Quality in Typologies
		3.8 Do Typologies Have Real Meaning?
		3.9 Summary
		References Cited
	4: Compilations: Designing and Using Archaeological Databases
		4.1 Information Language
			4.1.1 Graphical Information Languages
			4.1.2 Digital Information Languages
		4.2 Database Design
		4.3 Data Models
		4.4 Database Structure
			4.4.1 Types of Fields (Data Types)
			4.4.2 Operations or Procedures
			4.4.3 Data Flow Diagrams
		4.5 Data Dictionaries and Metadata
			4.5.1 Metadata Challenges and Digital Curation
		4.6 Web-Based Archaeological Databases
			4.6.1 Hypermedia and Online Data
		4.7 Artificial Intelligence (AI), Data Mining, and Big Data
		4.8 Quality Issues
		4.9 Summary
		References Cited
	5: Visualizing Archaeological Data
		5.1 Tables
		5.2 Common Varieties of Archaeological Graphs
			5.2.1 Box-and-Whisker Plots and Stem-and-Leaf Plots
			5.2.2 Azimuth Plots
			5.2.3 Bar Graphs
			5.2.4 Stacked Bar Graphs
			5.2.5 Time-Series Bar Graphs
			5.2.6 Pie Charts
			5.2.7 Windflowers
			5.2.8 Histograms
			5.2.9 Broken-Line Graphs and Time-Series
			5.2.10 Cumulative Frequency Graphs (Ogives)
			5.2.11 Scatterplots
			5.2.12 Ternary Graphs
			5.2.13 Spatial Histograms, Isopleth and Choropleth Maps
			5.2.14 Control Charts
		5.3 General Principles for Effective Graphs
			5.3.1 Transformations and Problems of Scale
		5.4 Conclusion
		5.5 Summary
		References Cited
	6: Research Design and Sampling
		6.1 Induction, Deduction, and Abduction
		6.2 The Scientific Cycle
		6.3 Problem Domains
		6.4 Types of Research Designs
			6.4.1 Exploratory and Descriptive Research Designs
			6.4.2 Historical Designs
			6.4.3 Comparative or Cross-Sectional Research Designs
			6.4.4 Regression Analysis and Causal Designs
			6.4.5 Analogical Research Designs
			6.4.6 Experimental Designs
		6.5 Factors That Can Affect the Validity of a Research Design
			6.5.1 Fisher´s Principles of Experimental Design
			6.5.2 Types of Experimental Design
				6.5.2.1 Static Group Design
				6.5.2.2 Post-test Control-Group Design
				6.5.2.3 Pretest-Post-test Control-Group Design
				6.5.2.4 The Solomon Four-Group Design
				6.5.2.5 Factorial Designs
				6.5.2.6 Latin-Square and Greco-Latin Square Designs
				6.5.2.7 Blind and Double-Blind Testing
			6.5.3 Experiments with Human Subjects
		6.6 Sampling
			6.6.1 Defining the Population
			6.6.2 Establishing the Sampling Frame and Sample Elements
			6.6.3 Sampling Strategies
			6.6.4 Cluster Sampling
			6.6.5 Effective Sampling Fractions and Sample Sizes
			6.6.6 Sequential Sampling
		6.7 What If Randomization or Probability Sampling Is Not an Option?
			6.7.1 Bayesian Sampling and the Concept of Exchangeability
		6.8 Summary
		References Cited
	7: Counting Things: Abundance and Other Quantitative Measures
		7.1 Assessing Abundance in Samples
			7.1.1 NISP
			7.1.2 The Shotwell Measure
			7.1.3 Minimum Numbers (MNI, MNV)
			7.1.4 Mass
			7.1.5 Area Measurements
			7.1.6 Ratios
			7.1.7 Densities
		7.2 Estimating Abundances in Populations
			7.2.1 The Krantz Estimator
			7.2.2 The Lincoln-Peterson Estimator
			7.2.3 Completeness Indices and Estimated Equivalents (EVE and ETE)
			7.2.4 Quasi-Counts (PIE and TIE)
			7.2.5 Total Minimum Animal Units (TMAU)
			7.2.6 Ratios of Ratios
		7.3 Indirect Measures
			7.3.1 Yield Estimates
		7.4 Are Ratio-Scale Measures Justified?
		7.5 Non-abundance Measures
			7.5.1 Fractal Dimension
			7.5.2 Ubiquity
			7.5.3 Diversity
		7.6 Summary
		References Cited
	8: Probability, Modelling, and Statistical Inference
		8.1 ``Verifying´´ Hypotheses
		8.2 Probability
			8.2.1 Properties of Probabilities
		8.3 Models
		8.4 Parametric Statistical Tests
		8.5 Confidence Intervals
		8.6 Bayesian Inference
		8.7 Summary
		References Cited
	9: Basic Artifact Conservation and Lab Management
		9.1 Artifacts in the Burial Environment
		9.2 Handling Artifacts in the Laboratory
		9.3 Simple Cleaning of Artifacts
		9.4 Storage of Archaeological Collections
		9.5 Collection Monitoring and Collection Census
		9.6 Conservation Documentation
		9.7 Refitting Pottery
		9.8 Removing Samples for Analysis
		9.9 Laboratory Protocols and Quality Assurance
		9.10 Ethical Issues
		9.11 Summary
		References cited
	10: Laboratory Health and Safety
		10.1 Ergonomics and Back Strain
		10.2 Hygiene
		10.3 Eye Protection
		10.4 Cuts and Abrasions
		10.5 Respiratory Hazards
		10.6 Radiation Hazards
		10.7 Workplace Hazardous Materials
		10.8 Hazard Warning Labels
		10.9 Summary
		References Cited
Part II
	Introduction to Part II
		References Cited
	11: Stone Artifacts
		11.1 La Chaîne Opératoire
		11.2 Lithic Raw Material
			11.2.1 Sourcing the Raw Materials
		11.3 Chipped-Stone Tools
			11.3.1 Fracture Mechanics and the Manufacture of Flaked-Stone Tools
			11.3.2 The Anatomy of Chipped Stone
			11.3.3 Stone Tool Typology
			11.3.4 Attributes of Chipped-Stone Products
				11.3.4.1 Attributes Common to Most Lithic Artifacts
				11.3.4.2 Attributes and Classes of Cores
				11.3.4.3 Attributes of Flakes and Blades
				11.3.4.4 Attributes of Retouched Tools
			11.3.5 Flintknapping Waste
			11.3.6 Refitting
		11.4 Ground-Stone Tools
			11.4.1 Manufacture of Ground-Stone Tools
			11.4.2 Anatomy of Common Ground-Stone Tools
			11.4.3 Some Attributes of Ground-Stone Tools
		11.5 Use-Wear and Residue Analysis
		11.6 Economizing Behavior and Design in Stone Tools
		11.7 Style in Stone Tools
		11.8 Non-Use Alteration of Lithics
		11.9 Validity and Reliability in Analysis of Stone Tools
		11.10 Summary
		References Cited
	12: Ceramic Artifacts
		12.1 Anatomy of a Pot
		12.2 Measuring Vessel Form and Size
		12.3 Ceramic Ecology and Chaînes Opératoires of Ceramic Vessels
			12.3.1 Raw Materials
			12.3.2 Processing the Raw Materials
			12.3.3 Preparing the Body
			12.3.4 Constructing the Vessel
				12.3.4.1 Primary Forming
				12.3.4.2 Secondary Forming
			12.3.5 Finishing Techniques
			12.3.6 Drying and Firing
			12.3.7 Use, Re-use and Recycling
		12.4 Pottery Attributes
			12.4.1 Attributes for Identifying Raw Materials
			12.4.2 Attributes for Identifying Forming and Finishing Techniques
			12.4.3 Attributes for Identifying Firing Conditions
		12.5 Functional Analysis of Pottery
		12.6 Stylistic Analysis
		12.7 Summary
		References Cited
	13: Metal Artifacts
		13.1 Chaînes Opératoires for Metal Artifacts
			13.1.1 Raw Materials, Metals and Alloys
			13.1.2 Alloys
			13.1.3 Shaping Metal
			13.1.4 Casting of Bronze Cutting Tools
			13.1.5 Lost-Wax Casting
			13.1.6 Chaînes Opératoires of Metal Vessels
			13.1.7 Jewelry
		13.2 Conservation Aspects
		13.3 Metal as Wealth
			13.3.1 Coins
			13.3.2 Hoard Analysis
		13.4 Quality in Archaeometallurgical Analyses
		13.5 Summary
		References Cited
	14: Bone and Shell Tools
		14.1 The Chaînes Opératoires of Bone and Shell Technology
			14.1.1 Bone, Shell and Ivory as Raw Materials
			14.1.2 Preparation of the Material
			14.1.3 Shaping the Material
		14.2 Types and Anatomies of Bone and Shell Tools
			14.2.1 Bone Awls, Needles and Points
			14.2.2 Fishhooks
			14.2.3 Potting Tools
			14.2.4 Beads and Pendants
			14.2.5 Bull-Roarers, Whistles and Flutes
			14.2.6 Bone, Ivory, and Shell as Decorative Inlay
		14.3 Use Wear on Bone and Shell Tools
		14.4 Summary
		References Cited
	15: Archaeological Animal Remains
		15.1 Types of Faunal Remains
		15.2 Taphonomy and Site-Formation Processes
		15.3 Animal Taxonomy and Anatomy
			15.3.1 Mammalian Anatomy
				15.3.1.1 Axial Parts
				15.3.1.2 Appendicular Parts
				15.3.1.3 Teeth
			15.3.2 Skeletal Anatomy of Birds
			15.3.3 Anatomy of Bony Fish
			15.3.4 Anatomy of Molluscs
		15.4 Identifying Faunal Remains
		15.5 Preparing Skeletal Remains for a Reference Collection
		15.6 Determining Sex
		15.7 Age at Death
		15.8 Zooarchaeological Sampling
		15.9 Zooarchaeological Quantification and Interpretation
			15.9.1 Elemental Abundance and Choice of Cut
		15.10 Paleoecology and Climate Change
		15.11 Seasonality
		15.12 Diet and Food Preferences
		15.13 Domestication of Animals
		15.14 Archaeogenetics and ZooMS
		15.15 Secondary Products
		15.16 Inter- and Intra-Observer Differences in Faunal Identification and Measurement
		15.17 Summary
		References Cited
	16: Archaeological Plant Remains
		16.1 Types of Archaeological Plant Remains
			16.1.1 Macroremains
			16.1.2 Microremains
			16.1.3 Chemical and Isotopic Evidence
		16.2 Taphonomy, Site-Formation Processes, and the Chaînes Opératoires of Plant Use
		16.3 Archaeobotanical Sampling
		16.4 Processing Samples of Macroremains
			16.4.1 Water Flotation for Charred Plant Remains
			16.4.2 Dry Sieving
			16.4.3 Post-separation Analysis
		16.5 Seeds and Nutshell
		16.6 Wood Charcoal of Trees and Shrubs
		16.7 Parenchymous Remains
		16.8 Processing and Analyzing Samples of Microremains
			16.8.1 Pollen
			16.8.2 Phytoliths
			16.8.3 Starches
		16.9 Chemical and Isotopic Evidence
		16.10 Quantification Issues
		16.11 Archaeobotany and Paleoenvironment
		16.12 Reconstructing Paleodiets, Foodways and Plant Use
		16.13 Plant Domestication and the Origins of Food Production
		16.14 Quality in Archaeobotanical Analysis
		16.15 Summary
		References Cited
	17: Soils, Sediments, and Geoarchaeology
		17.1 Soils and Sediments
		17.2 Lithostratigraphy and Archaeological Stratigraphy
		17.3 Sampling Sediments for Laboratory Analysis
		17.4 Texture and Particle Characteristics
			17.4.1 Texture
			17.4.2 Particle and Aggregate Shape
			17.4.3 Sorting and Density of Particles
		17.5 Sediment Color
		17.6 Acidity (pH)
		17.7 Phosphates
		17.8 Micromorphology
		17.9 Geomorphology and Site-Formation Processes
		17.10 Environmental Interpretation
		17.11 Cultural Interpretation
		17.12 Stratigraphic Associations
		17.13 Summary
		References Cited
	18: Seriation
		18.1 Incidence and Frequency Seriation
		18.2 Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) and Correspondence Analysis (CA)
		18.3 Bayesian Approaches to Seriation
		18.4 A New Approach to Deterministic Seriation
		18.5 Die-Linkage of Coins
		18.6 Quality in the Use and Interpretation of Seriations
		18.7 Summary
		References Cited
	19: Stratigraphy
		19.1 Traditional Stratigraphic Analysis
		19.2 The Harris Matrix
		19.3 Single-Context or Single-Layer Plans
		19.4 Grouping Stratigraphic Units
		19.5 Confounding Factors
		19.6 Unitary Association Method
		19.7 Summary
		References Cited
	20: Chronometric Dating
		20.1 Dates and Events
		20.2 Types of Dating and Their Uncertainties
		20.3 Chronology from Historical Manufacture Dates
		20.4 Dendrochronology
		20.5 Radiometric and Physics-Based Dating in General
			20.5.1 Radiocarbon Dating
			20.5.2 Sources of Error in Radiocarbon Dating
				20.5.2.1 Calibration of Radiocarbon Results
				20.5.2.2 Reporting Radiocarbon Results
				20.5.2.3 Wiggle-Matching and ``Bomb Effect´´
				20.5.2.4 Sample Type and ``Chronometric Hygiene´´
				20.5.2.5 Too Few Dates? Or Too Many?
		20.6 Bayesian Analysis of Chronology
			20.6.1 Credible Intervals
		20.7 Summed Probability Distributions (SPD)
		20.8 Summary
		References Cited
	21: Archaeological Illustration and Publication
		21.1 Early Archaeological Illustration
		21.2 Style of Representation and Basic Conventions
		21.3 Basic Equipment and Supplies
		21.4 Lithic Illustration
		21.5 Illustrating Pottery and Stone, Glass or Metal Vessels
		21.6 Illustrating ``Small Finds´´
		21.7 3D Scans of Artifacts
		21.8 Indicating Error or Uncertainty in Illustrations
		21.9 Layout of Plates
		21.10 Maps and Plans
		21.11 Stratigraphic Sections and Architectural Elevations
		21.12 Reconstructions and Visualization
		21.13 Digital Illustration
			21.13.1 Digital File Formats
		21.14 The Publication Process
			21.14.1 Publishers´ Styles
			21.14.2 Online Publication and Unconventional Publication
		21.15 Summary
		References Cited
Index