Aquaculture Perspective of Multi-Use Sites in the Open Ocean

The Global Imperative to Develop New Models of Open Ocean Aquaculture for Accelerating Large-Scale Food and Energy Production......Page 5
 ReferencesBarange, M., Merino, G. Blanchard, J. L., Scholtens, J., Harle, J., Ellison, E. H. et al. (2014). Impacts of climate change on marine ecosystem production in fisheries-dependent societies. Nature Climate Change, 4, 211–216.Barents Observer. (2015). Norway and Russia agree on Barents Sea quotas for 2015. Kirkenes, Norway. Retrieved October 20, 2016, from http://barentsobserver.com/en/nature/2014/10/norway-and-russia-agree-barents-sea-quotas-2015-10-10.Costa-Pierce, B. A. (2016). Ocean foods ecosystems for planetary survival in the Anthropocene. In E. M. Binder (Ed.), World nutrition forum: Driving the protein economy (pp. 301–320). Austria: Erber, AG.FAO. (1995). Code of conduct for responsible fisheries. Rome: FAO. Retrieved October 21, 2016, from http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/v9878e/v9878e00.HTM.FAO. (2010). Aquaculture development. 4. Ecosystem approach to aquaculture. FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries, (no. 5, suppl. 4). Rome: FAO.FAO. (2016). The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2016: Contributing to food security and nutrition for all. Rome: FAO.High Level Panel of Experts. (2014). Sustainable fisheries and aquaculture for food security and nutrition. In A report by the high level panel of experts on food security and nutrition of the committee on world food security. Rome: FAO.Barboza, D. (2007). In China, farming fish in Toxic Waters. New York Times. Retrieved October 1, 2016, from http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/15/world/asia/15fish.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0.Rosenthal, H., Costa-Pierce, B. A., Krause, G., & Buck, B. H. (2012). Bremerhaven declaration on the future of global open Ocean Aquaculture. Part I: Preamble and recommendations. Part II. Recommendations on subject areas and justifications. Bremerhaven, Germany: BiS. Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.bis-bremerhaven.de/sixcms/media.php/631/BremerhavenDeclaration3-Part1_05-2013_L02.pdf.Zabel, F., Putzenlechner, B., & Mauser, W. (2014). Global agricultural land resources—A high resolution suitability evaluation and its perspectives until 2100 under climate change conditions. PLOS doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0107522......Page 8
Contents......Page 9
Editors and Contributors......Page 11
Abbreviations......Page 16
 Abstract......Page 22
 1.1 Aquaculture—A Historical Overview......Page 24
 1.2 Moving Aquaculture Operations Offshore......Page 28
  1.3.1 Pilot Projects in Russia......Page 29
  1.3.2 Pilot Projects in the USA......Page 30
  1.3.3 Pilot Projects in Germany......Page 32
 1.4 Initiation to the Topic......Page 34
 References......Page 36
Species, Techniques and System Design......Page 42
 Abstract......Page 43
 2.1 Sustainable Aquaculture......Page 44
 2.3 IMTA on Offshore Applications......Page 45
  2.4.1 Seaweeds......Page 46
  2.4.2 Bivalves......Page 48
   2.5.1.1 Pyropia and Porphyra (‘Gim’ in Korean or ‘Nori’ in Japanese)......Page 49
   2.5.2.1 Saccharina and Undaria......Page 50
   2.5.2.2 Sargassum......Page 52
   2.5.3.1 Mussels......Page 53
 2.6 Current Status of Offshore Seaweed and Bivalve Production and Their Potential for Multi-Use......Page 54
  2.6.1 Germany......Page 55
  2.6.2 Belgium......Page 57
  2.6.3 Norway......Page 62
  2.6.5 The Netherlands......Page 64
  2.6.7 United Kingdom......Page 66
  2.6.8 Italy......Page 67
  2.6.9 The United States......Page 68
  2.6.10 The Republic of Korea......Page 71
  2.6.11 China......Page 72
 2.7 Ecosystem Services......Page 74
 2.8 Concluding Remarks and Outlook......Page 77
 References......Page 78
 Abstract......Page 90
 3.1 Introduction......Page 91
  3.2.1 Mussel Farming Development in NZ......Page 94
  3.2.2 Oyster Farming in the Open Ocean......Page 97
  3.3.1 Open Ocean Aquaculture in New Hampshire, USA......Page 98
  3.4.1 Methodology......Page 104
  3.4.2 Velocity, Force and Scour Regimes......Page 106
 3.5 Discussion and Conclusions......Page 109
 References......Page 112
 Abstract......Page 115
 4.1 Introduction......Page 116
  4.2.1 Accessibility of Offshore Wind Farms......Page 117
  4.2.4 Dutch Offshore Wind Energy Services (DOWES)......Page 119
  4.2.5 Analysis of Operation and Maintenance Costs......Page 120
  4.3.2 Inspective, Preventive, Corrective Maintenance and Improvement Maintenance......Page 123
  4.3.3 Asset Management Control (AMC) Model......Page 124
 4.4 Conclusions......Page 128
  Offshore Wind and Fish Farming Support Ships......Page 129
 References......Page 130
 Abstract......Page 132
 5.1 Introduction......Page 133
  5.2.2 Corrosion Risks in Currently Used Offshore Wind Turbines......Page 134
  5.2.3 Biofouling on Offshore Structures......Page 135
  5.2.4 Potential Influence of Offshore Aquaculture on the Corrosion of Unprotected Steel Structures......Page 137
 5.3 Mechanical Risks of Wind Farms Due to the Presence of Offshore Aquaculture Constructions......Page 138
 5.4 Scenario Analyses......Page 139
 5.5 Conclusions and Recommendations......Page 141
 References......Page 142
Aquaculture Governance......Page 145
 Abstract......Page 146
 6.1 Reconciling Ocean Uses Through Marine Spatial Planning......Page 147
 6.2 Potential Benefits of MSP to Aquaculture......Page 148
 6.3 Decision Support Systems for MSP and Aquaculture Siting......Page 149
  6.3.2 DSS for Aquaculture Siting......Page 150
 6.4 The Co-location Scenario: Combining Offshore Wind Energy and Aquaculture......Page 152
  6.4.2 Case Study in the German Bight......Page 153
 6.5 Conclusions and Future Needs......Page 157
 Acknowledgements......Page 158
 References......Page 159
 Abstract......Page 164
 7.1 Introduction......Page 165
 7.2 Defining Governance, Management and Policy......Page 166
 7.3 Developing a Multi-level Governance Framework for Offshore Aquaculture......Page 168
 7.4 Knowledge and Information Gaps in Offshore Aquaculture Multi-use Governance......Page 171
 7.5 Outlook......Page 174
 References......Page 175
 Abstract......Page 178
 8.1 Background......Page 179
 8.2 Socio-economic Dimensions of Aquaculture—A First Typology......Page 181
  8.2.1 Attitudes to and Perceptions of Aquaculture......Page 183
  8.2.2 Organization of and Participation in Planning for Aquaculture......Page 184
  8.2.3 Direct Benefits of Aquaculture, and Their Distribution......Page 185
  8.2.4 Negative Effects of Aquaculture Production Activities and Conflicts with Other Interests......Page 186
  8.2.6 Effects on Cultural Fabric and Other Social Aspects......Page 187
 8.3 Current Knowledge on Socio-economic Effects of Offshore Aquaculture......Page 189
 8.4 Implications for Assessing the Socio-economic Effects of Offshore Aquaculture in a Multi-use Setting......Page 193
 8.5 Outlook......Page 195
 References......Page 196
 9.1 Introduction......Page 202
  9.1.2 Ocean Energy Trends......Page 203
 9.2 Status of Commercial Offshore Aquaculture......Page 204
  9.2.1 Standalone Aquaculture Projects......Page 205
  9.2.2 Aquaculture Co-located with Platforms......Page 206
  9.3.1 Introduction......Page 207
  9.3.2 Regulating Finfish Aquaculture in the U.S. EEZ, a Regional Approach......Page 210
   9.3.2.1 Background......Page 211
   9.3.2.2 A Path Forward......Page 212
    Core Terms......Page 213
    Description of the Application......Page 214
    Operational and Monitoring Requirements......Page 215
    Sanctions and Denials......Page 217
    DA Section 10 Permit, ACOE-......Page 218
    National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), EPA......Page 219
   9.3.2.5 Successful State Permit/Leasing Processes......Page 220
    Hawaii......Page 221
    Evolution of the Regional Approach......Page 222
    The Gulf Plan Rules, Concerns......Page 223
    Operating and Monitoring Requirements, Concerns......Page 224
    Comparison with State Processes......Page 225
  9.3.3 Case Study—Shellfish Farming in the Northeastern and West Coasts of the U.S., Recent Examples......Page 226
    Catalina Sea Ranch’s Offshore Mariculture Monitoring Program......Page 227
    Cape Ann Mussel Farm......Page 228
    Nantucket Sound Mussel Farm......Page 229
   9.3.3.3 Discussion......Page 230
   9.3.4.2 Description of Farm......Page 231
    Coast Protection Act 1949; Section 34......Page 232
    Shellfish Harvesting Area Classification......Page 234
    Environmental Impact......Page 235
   9.3.4.6 Discussion—Future Regulation and Co-location of Offshore Aquaculture......Page 236
  9.4.1 Planning a Regulatory System......Page 238
  9.4.2 The Regulatory System......Page 239
 References......Page 241
Aquaculture Economics......Page 245
 10.1 Introduction......Page 246
 10.2 Ocean Space as an Input to Economic Production......Page 247
  10.2.1 Production Function......Page 249
  10.2.2 Unit Values......Page 251
 10.4 Private Benefits from Multi-use and Co-location......Page 255
 10.5 Case Study: Mussel Culture and Wind Farms in the Netherlands......Page 257
 10.6 Conclusions......Page 259
 References......Page 260
Case Studies......Page 263
 Abstract......Page 264
 11.1 Introduction......Page 265
 11.2 The Beginning......Page 268
   11.3.1.1 Candidate: Laminarian Species......Page 271
   11.3.1.2 Candidate: Palmaria palmata......Page 274
   11.3.1.3 Candidate: Delesseria sanguinea......Page 276
   11.3.2.1 Candidate: Mytilus edulis......Page 277
   11.3.2.2 Candidates: Crassostrea gigas and Ostrea edulis......Page 285
   11.3.3.1 Candidate: Homarus gammarus......Page 290
  11.3.4 Fish Species......Page 292
   11.3.4.1 Candidate: Dicentrarchus labrax......Page 293
   11.3.4.3 Candidate: Hippoglossus hippoglossus......Page 295
   11.3.4.4 Candidate: Scophthalmus maximus......Page 296
   11.3.4.5 Candidate: Melanogrammus aeglefinus......Page 297
  11.3.5 Various Species in One Habitat—Managing Reef Effects......Page 298
  11.4.1 Longline-Techniques and Combination to Wind Farm Turbines......Page 299
   11.4.1.1 Mussel Longlines: Design......Page 300
   11.4.1.2 Mussel Longlines: Forces Induced by Collectors......Page 303
   11.4.1.3 Mussel Longlines: Attachment to Foundations......Page 305
   11.4.1.4 Mussel Longlines: Attachment to a Monopile......Page 308
   11.4.1.5 Mussel Longlines: Attachment to a Tripod......Page 312
   11.4.1.6 Additional Forces Measurement......Page 313
   11.4.1.7 Conclusion and Outlook......Page 315
  11.4.2 Seaweed Cultivation Devices......Page 316
   11.4.3.1 Integrating a Fish Cage into a Tripod Foundation......Page 322
   11.4.3.2 Impact of the Integrated Cage on the Support Structure......Page 327
   11.4.4.1 Offshore Seed Collector and Grow-Out Devices......Page 328
   11.4.4.2 Underwater Inspection Device......Page 330
   11.4.4.3 Automated Saccharina Seeding Tank......Page 332
 11.5 Stakeholder Attitudes, Perceptions and Concerns......Page 333
 11.6 Economic Calculations......Page 339
  11.6.1 Basic Data......Page 340
  11.6.2 Data for the Economic Analysis......Page 342
  11.6.3 Calculation and Results......Page 343
   11.6.3.1 Operation Costs......Page 344
   11.6.3.4 Investment Appraisal......Page 345
  11.6.4 Final Conclusion......Page 346
   11.7.1.1 Sole Owner......Page 347
   11.7.1.2 Negotiated Contract......Page 348
   11.7.1.3 Legislated......Page 349
 11.8 Regulation of Aquaculture Within the German Bight......Page 350
   11.8.1.2 The Approval Procedure......Page 351
   11.8.1.3 The Sites for Mariculture Facilities......Page 352
  11.8.2 Approval procedure of offshore multi-use installations......Page 353
 References......Page 354
 Abstract......Page 366
  12.1.2 About TROPOS......Page 367
  12.1.3 Aquaculture in TROPOS......Page 369
  12.2.1 General Platform Design......Page 370
  12.2.2 The Green & Blue Concept......Page 372
  12.3.1 Central Unit......Page 373
  12.3.2 Modules......Page 374
  12.3.3 Satellite Units......Page 376
   12.3.4.1 Finfish Aquaculture......Page 378
   12.3.4.2 Microalgae Aquaculture......Page 381
 12.5 Outlook......Page 383
 References......Page 384
 13.1 Background......Page 386
 13.2 The Gulf of Mexico......Page 389
 13.3 Past Projects......Page 392
 13.4 The Future......Page 397
 References......Page 401
Conclusion and Outlook......Page 403
 14.1 Introduction......Page 404
 14.2 What We Have Learned......Page 405
  14.3.2 Environmental Impacts......Page 406
 14.4 Future Challenges and Opportunities......Page 407
  14.5.1 International Test Station......Page 408
  14.5.2 Bremerhaven Declaration......Page 409
 14.6 Conclusion......Page 410
 References......Page 411