Applied Photovoltaics

APPLIED PHOTOVOLTAICS Third Edition
Copyright
Acknowledgements
CONTENTS
Introduction
Chapter 1—The Characteristics of Sunlight
	1.1 Particle–wave duality
	1.2 Blackbody radiation
	1.3 The sun and its radiation
	1.4 Solar radiation
	1.5 Direct and diffuse radiation
	1.6 The Greenhouse Effect
	1.7 Apparent motion of the sun
	1.8 Solar insolation data and estimation
		1.8.1 Extraterrestrial radiation
		1.8.2 Terrestrial global radiation on a horizontal surface
		1.8.3 Global and diffuse components
		1.8.4 Radiation on tilted surfaces
	1.9 Solar energy and photovoltaics
Chapter 2—Semiconductors and p–n Junctions
	2.1 Semiconductors
		2.1.1 The bond model
		2.1.2 The band model
		2.1.3 Doping
	2.2 Semiconductor types
		2.2.1 Crystalline silicon
		2.2.2 Multicrystalline silicon
		2.2.3 Amorphous silicon
		2.2.4 Other tetrahedral semiconductors
		2.2.5 Organic, plastic and dye solar cells
	2.3 Absorption of light
	2.4 Recombination
	2.5 p– n junctions
Chapter 3—The Behaviour of Solar Cells
	3.1 Effect of light
	3.2 Spectral response
	3.3 Effect of temperature
	3.4 Effect of parasitic resistances
Chapter 4—Cell Properties and Design
	4.1 Efficiencies
	4.2 Optical losses
	4.3 Recombination losses
	4.4 Top contact design
		4.4.1 Bulk and sheet resistivities
		4.4.2 Grid spacings
		4.4.3 Other losses
	4.5 Laboratory cells versus industry requirements
	4.6 Improved Cell Sequences
		4.6.1 Selective emitter and double printing
		4.6.2 Laser based processing
Chapter 5—Pv Cell Interconnection and Module Fabrication
	5.1 Module and circuit design
	5.2 Identical cells
	5.3 Non-identical cells
	5.4 Non-identical modules
	5.5 Hot-spot heating
	5.6 Module structure
	5.7 Environmental protection
	5.8 Thermal considerations
	5.9 Electrical insulation
	5.10 Mechanical protection
	5.11 Degradation and failure modes
	5.12 Embodied energy and life cycle issues
Chapter 6—Stand-Alone Photovoltaic System Components
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Stand-alone PV system design
	6.3 Solar modules
	6.4 Batteries
		6.4.1 Types
		6.4.2 Applications
		6.4.4 Efficiency
		6.4.5 Power rating and capacity
		6.4.6 Depth-of-discharge
	6.5 Lead–acid batteries
		6.5.1 Types
		6.5.2 Plate material
		6.5.3 Charging regimes
		6.5.4 Efficiencies
		6.5.5 Benchmarking and categorisation of similar use
	6.6 Other electrical charge storage methods
		6.6.1 Nickel–cadmium batteries
		6.6.2 Nickel–metal-hydride batteries
		6.6.3 Lithium-ion and lithium–polymer batteries
		6.6.4 Rechargeable alkaline manganese (RAM) batteries
		6.6.5 Redox-flow batteries
		6.6.6 Super capacitors
	6.7 Power conditioning and regulation
		6.7.1 Diodes
		6.7.2 Regulators
		6.7.3 Inverters
	6.8 Balance of system components
		6.8.1 Wiring
		6.8.2 Over-current protection
		6.8.3 Switches
		6.8.4 Connectors
		6.8.5 Earthing (grounding)
		6.8.6 Lightning protection
		6.8.7 Metering and alarms
		6.8.8 Battery housing and signage
		6.8.9 Housing of electronics
		6.8.10 Module mounting
Chapter 7—Designing Stand-Alone Photovoltaic Systems
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 System availability
	7.3 Hybrid systems
	7.4 A simplified PV system design approach
	7.5 Sandia National Laboratory approach
	7.6 Australian Standard AS4509.2
	7.7 System design software
Chapter 8—Specific Purpose Photovoltaic Applications
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Space
	8.3 Marine navigational aids
	8.4 Telecommunications
		8.4.1 Transportable PV power supplies
		8.4.2 Radio telephone services
		8.4.3 Mobile phone networks
		8.4.4 Optical fibre networks
	8.5 Cathodic protection
		8.5.1 System sizing
		8.5.2 Controllers
		8.5.3 Power sources
	8.6 Water pumping
	8.7 Consumer products for indoor use
	8.8 Battery chargers
	8.9 Photovoltaics for developing countries
	8.10 Refrigeration
	8.11 Photovoltaic-powered transport
	8.12 Solar cars
	8.13 Lighting
	8.14 Remote monitoring
	8.15 Direct-drive applications
	8.16 Electric fences
Chapter 9—Remote Area Power Supply Systems
	9.1 Household power systems
		9.1.1 The choice between AC and DC
		9.1.2 Appliances
		9.1.3 Consumer education
		9.1.4 Photovoltaic–diesel/petrol generator hybrid systems
		9.1.5 Diesel generators
		9.1.6 Petrol generators
		9.1.7 Hybrid system design
	9.2 RAPS system costs
	9.3 Portable RAPS systems
		9.3.1 Portable systems for remote aboriginal communities
		9.3.2 Integrated solar home systems
		9.3.3 Stationpower®
	9.4 Reliability and maintenance
	9.5 Government assistance schemes
Chapter 10—Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Systems
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 PV systems in buildings
		10.2.1 Module mounting approaches
		10.2.2 The inverter
		10.2.3 On-site storage
		10.2.4 Size and economics
		10.2.5 Other issues
	10.3 Utility applications for photovoltaics
	10.4 Design issues for central power stations
		10.4.1 Cell interconnection
	10.5 Safety
		10.5.1 Islanding
	10.6 The value of PV-generated electricity
		10.6.1 Energy credit
		10.6.2 Capacity credit
		10.6.3 Distributed benefits
		10.6.4 Example 1—Distribution Feeder 1103, Kerman, California
		10.6.5 Example 2—Kalbarri, Western Australia
	10.7 International PV programs
		10.7.1 USA
		10.7.2 Japan
		10.7.3 Europe
		10.7.4 India
		10.7.5 China
		10.7.6 Australia
Chapter 11—Photovoltaic Water Pumping System Components
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 System configurations
	11.3 Water pumps
		11.3.1 Centrifugal pumps
		11.3.2 Displacement or volumetric pumps
	11.4 Motors
		11.4.1 Introduction
		11.4.2 DC motors
		11.4.3 AC motors
		11.4.4 Motor losses
		11.4.5 Integrated pump/motor machines
	11.5 Power conditioning circuitry
	11.6 Batteries
	11.7 Array wiring and mounting
		11.7.1 Array wiring
		11.7.2 Array mounting
	11.8 PV Water pumping system design
		11.8.1 Introduction
		11.8.2 Basic steps in system design
		11.8.3 Design of a directly coupled system
Appendix A—Standard AM0 and AM1.5 Spectra
Appendix B—Equations for Calculating Sun Position
Appendix C—Characteristic Days and Declinations
Appendix D—Some Insolation Data Sources
	D.1 Ground-based measurements
	D.2 Satellite-derived data
	D.3 Australia and New Zealand
	D.4 Europe
	D.5 Hong Kong
	D.6 USA
	D.7 Algeria
	D.8 Brazil
	D.9 Regression constants
	D.10 Theoretical models and calculators
	D.11 Global Gazetteer
Appendix E—Standards
	E.1 ASTM international
	E.2 Australia—Standards Australia
	E.3 Canada—Standards Council of Canada
	E.4 China—Standardization administration of China (SAC)
	E.5 European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC)
	E.6 Germany—Deutsches Institut für Normung (DIN)
	E.7 Global Approval Program for Photovoltaics (PVGAP)
	E.8 Indonesia—Badan Standardisasi Nasional (BSN)
	E.9 Institution of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
	E.10 International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
	E.11 International Organization for Standards (ISO)
	E.12 Japan—Japanese Standards Association (JSA)
	E.13 Korea—Korean Standards Association (KSA)
	E.14 Mexico—Dirección General de Normas (DGN)
	E.15 Russia—Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology
	E.16 Sweden—Standardiseringen i Sverige (SIS)
	E.17 Taiwan (ROC)—Bureau of Standards, Metrology and Inspection (BSMI)
	E.18 Thailand—Thai industrial standards institute (TISI)
	E.19 TÜV Rheinland
	E.20 Underwriters Laboratories (UL)
	E.21 Zimbabwe—Standards Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ)
	E.22 Universal Technical Standard for Solar Home Systems
	E.23 Best Practice Guidelines and Accreditation
	E.24 International Solar Energy Society (ISES) and Deutsche Gesellschaft für Sonnenenergie eV (DGS)
Appendix F—Stand-Alone Photovoltaic System Design
	F.1 Introduction
	F.2 Stand-alone system design procedure
	F.3 Sandia National Laboratory approach
Appendix G—System Design for Pv-Powered Water Pumping
	G.1 Introduction
	G.2 Insolation data manipulation
	G.3 PV module characteristics
	G.4 Example of a directly coupled system design
Index