Anthropology: The Human Challenge

Cover......Page 1
Brief Contents......Page 15
Features Contents......Page 16
Table of Contents......Page 18
Preface......Page 28
Acknowledgements......Page 43
About the Authors......Page 44
The Anthropological Perspective......Page 47
Anthropology And Its Fields......Page 49
Cultural Anthropology......Page 50
Linguistic Anthropology......Page 53
Archaeology......Page 54
Biological Anthropology......Page 56
Anthropologist of Note: Franz Boas (1858-1942), Matilda Coze Stephenson (1849-1915)......Page 58
Doing Anthropology In The Field......Page 59
Questions Of Ethics......Page 64
Anthropology And Globalization......Page 65
Biocultural Connection: Picturing Pesticides......Page 52
Anthropology Applied: Forensic Anthropology: Voices for the Dead......Page 60
Orginal Study: Whispers from the Ice......Page 62
Chapter Checklist......Page 68
Digging into Anthropology......Page 69
Evolution And Creation Stories......Page 71
The Classification Of Living Things......Page 72
The Discovery Of Evolution......Page 73
Heredity......Page 75
The Transmission Of Genes......Page 76
Genes And Alleles......Page 77
Cell Division......Page 79
Polygenetic Inheritance......Page 83
Genetic Drift......Page 85
Gene Flow......Page 86
Natural Selection......Page 87
The Case Of Sickle-Cell Anemia......Page 88
Adaptation And Physical Variation......Page 90
Macroevolution And The Process Of Speciation......Page 91
Biocultural Connection: Bonds Beyond Blood: DNA Testing and 
Biocultural Connection: Refugee Family Unification......Page 82
Orginial Study: Ninety-Eight Percent Alike: What Our Similarity to
Apes Tells Us about Our Understanding of Genetics......Page 84
Chapter Checklist......Page 93
Digging into Anthropology......Page 94
Chapter 3: Living Primates......Page 97
Methods And Ethics In Primatology......Page 98
Primates As Mammals......Page 100
Primate Taxonomy......Page 102
Primate Teeth......Page 105
Primate Sensory Organs......Page 106
The Primate Skeleton......Page 108
Living Primates......Page 109
Lemurs And Lorises......Page 110
New World Monkeys......Page 111
Old World Monkeys......Page 113
Biocultural Connection: Gibbons and Sopranos Both Need to Be Heard......Page 114
Threats To Primates......Page 117
Conservation Strategies......Page 118
Original Study: Gorilla Ecotourism: Ethical Considerations for Conservation......Page 99
Anthropology Applied: Saving Our Ape Cousins: Primatologists, Community Action,and the African Wildlife Foundation......Page 120
Chapter Checklist......Page 122
Digging into Anthropology......Page 123
Primates As Models For Human Evolution......Page 125
Primate Social Organization......Page 127
Social Hierarchy......Page 128
Individual Interaction And Bonding......Page 131
Sexual Behavior......Page 132
Reproduction And Care Of Young......Page 135
Communication And Learning......Page 136
Use Of Objects As Tools......Page 141
Hunting......Page 142
The Question Of Culture......Page 143
Anthropologist of Note: Jane Goodall (b. 1934), Kinji Imanishi (1902–1992)......Page 130
Biocultural Connection: Humans and Bonobos: A Bicultural Conversation......Page 138
Anthropology Applied: Chimpanzees in Biomedical Research: Jane Goodalland the Fight to End the Practice......Page 144
Chapter Checklist......Page 146
Digging into Anthropology......Page 147
Chapter 5: Field Methods In Archaeology And Paleoanthropology......Page 149
The Nature Of Fossils......Page 150
Searching For Artifacts And Fossils......Page 152
Site Identification......Page 153
Cultural Resource Management......Page 156
Excavation......Page 158
The State Of Preservation Of Archaeological And Fossil Evidence......Page 159
Sorting Out The Evidence......Page 161
Dating The Past......Page 163
Biocultural Connection: Kennewick Man......Page 164
Chronometric Dating......Page 167
Concepts And Methods For The Most Distant Past......Page 169
Anthropology Applied: The Atari Burial Grounds......Page 170
The Molecular Clock......Page 171
The Sciences Of Discovery......Page 173
Original Study: Action Archaeology and the Community at El Pilar......Page 154
Chapter Checklist......Page 174
Digging into Anthropology......Page 175
Primate Origins......Page 177
Oligocene Anthropoids......Page 179
Miocene Apes And Human Origins......Page 180
The Anatomy Of Bipedalism......Page 184
Ardipithecus......Page 186
Australopithecus......Page 187
The Pliocene Environment And Hominin Diversity......Page 188
East Africa......Page 189
South Africa......Page 195
Robust Australopithecines......Page 196
Australopithecines And The Genus Homo......Page 198
Environment, Diet, And The Origins Of The Human Line......Page 199
Humans Stand On Their Own Two Feet......Page 201
Early Representatives Of The Genus Homo......Page 204
Lumpers Or Splitters?......Page 205
Differences Between Early Homo and Australopithecus......Page 206
Anthropologist of Note: The Leakeys......Page 181
Original Study: Ankles of the Australopithecines......Page 192
Biocultural Connection: Evolution and Human Birth......Page 203
Chapter Checklist......Page 207
Digging into Anthropology......Page 208
Chapter 7: Origins Of The Genus Homo......Page 211
The Discovery Of The First Stone Toolmaker......Page 212
Sex, Gender, And The Behavior Of Early Homo......Page 213
Hunters Or Scavengers?......Page 214
Brain Size And Diet......Page 217
Physical Characteristics of Homo erectus......Page 218
Relationship Among Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and Other Proposed Fossil Groups......Page 220
Homo erectus from China......Page 221
Homo erectus from Western Europe......Page 223
Acheulean Tool Tradition......Page 224
Use Of Fire......Page 225
The Question Of Language......Page 226
Archaic Homo sapiens 
and the Appearance Of Modern-sized Brains......Page 227
Levalloisian Technique......Page 228
Other Cultural Innovations......Page 229
The Neandertals......Page 230
Javanese, African, And Chinese Archaic Homo sapiens......Page 232
The Mousterian Tool Tradition......Page 233
The Symbolic Life Of Neandertals......Page 234
Speech And Language In The Middle Paleolithic......Page 236
Chapter Checklist......Page 238
Original Study: Humans as Prey......Page 215
Anthropology Applied: Stone Tools for Modern Surgeons......Page 235
Digging into Anthropology......Page 240
Chapter 8: The Global Expansion 
of Homo sapiens and 
Their Technology......Page 243
The Multiregional Hypothesis......Page 244
The Recent African Origins Hypothesis......Page 245
Reconciling The Evidence......Page 246
The Anatomical Evidence......Page 248
The Cultural Evidence......Page 249
Coexistence And Cultural Continuity......Page 250
Race And Human Evolution......Page 251
Upper Paleolithic Technology......Page 252
Music......Page 254
Cave Or Rock Art......Page 256
Other Aspects Of Upper Paleolithic Culture......Page 260
The Spread Of Upper Paleolithic Peoples......Page 261
The Sahul......Page 262
The Americas......Page 265
Major Paleolithic Trends......Page 266
Anthropologists of Note: Berhane Asfaw (b. 1953), Svante Pääbo (b. 1955)......Page 247
Original Study: Paleolithic Paint Job......Page 258
Biocultural Connection: Paleolithic Prescriptions for Diseases of Today......Page 267
Chapter Checklist......Page 268
Digging into Anthropology......Page 269
The Mesolithic Roots Of Farming And Pastoralism......Page 271
The Neolithic Revolution......Page 272
What Is Domestication?......Page 273
Evidence Of Early Animal Domestication......Page 274
Why Humans Became Food Producers......Page 275
The Fertile Crescent......Page 276
Other Centers Of Domestication......Page 277
Food Production And Population Size......Page 281
The Spread Of Food Production......Page 282
Jericho: An Early Farming Community......Page 283
Neolithic Material Culture......Page 284
Social Structure......Page 285
Neolithic Cultures In The Americas......Page 286
The Neolithic And Human Biology......Page 287
The Neolithic And The Idea Of Progress......Page 289
Biocultural Connection: Dogs Get Right to the Point......Page 280
Anthropology Applied: Pre-Columbian Fish Farming in the Amazon......Page 288
Chapter Checklist......Page 291
Digging into Anthropology......Page 292
Chapter 10: The Emergence Of Cities And States......Page 295
Defining Civilization......Page 296
Surveying And Excavating The Site......Page 298
Evidence From The Excavation......Page 299
Diversification Of Labor......Page 301
Central Government......Page 303
Social Stratification......Page 306
The Making Of States......Page 307
Ecological Theories......Page 310
Civilization And Its Discontents......Page 311
Colonialism And Disease......Page 313
Biocultural Connection: Perilous Pigs: The Introduction of Swine-BorneDisease to the Americas......Page 314
Originial Study: Ani: Identities and Conflicts inand Around a Silk Road City......Page 308
Chapter Checklist......Page 316
Digging into Anthropology......Page 317
Chapter 11: Modern Human Diversity—Race And Racism......Page 319
The History Of Human Classification......Page 320
Race As A Biological Concept......Page 321
Conflating Biology Into The Cultural Category Of Race......Page 322
The Social Significance Of Race: Racism......Page 325
Race And Intelligence......Page 327
Studying Human Biological Diversity......Page 329
Biocultural Connection: Beauty, Bigotry, and the Epicanthic Fold of the Beholder......Page 330
Beans, Enzymes, And Adaptation To Malaria......Page 332
Skin Color: A Case Study In Adaptation......Page 333
Race And Human Evolution......Page 335
Orginial Study: Reflections on the AAA Die-In as aSymbolic Space of Social Death......Page 326
Chapter Checklist......Page 336
Digging into Anthropology......Page 337
Chapter 12: Human Adaptation To A Changing World......Page 339
Human Adaptation To Natural Environmental Stressors......Page 340
Anothropologist of Note: Peter T. Ellison (b. 1951)......Page 344
Adaptation To Cold......Page 346
The Development Of Medical Anthropology......Page 348
Science, Illness, And Disease......Page 349
Evolution And Infectious Disease......Page 354
Biocultural Connection: The Vaccine Debate Goes Viral......Page 356
Prion Diseases......Page 357
Population Size And Health......Page 358
Environmental Impact And Health......Page 360
The Future of Homo sapiens......Page 362
Original Study: Dancing Skeletons: Life and Deathin West Africa......Page 352
Chapter Checklist......Page 363
Digging into Anthropology......Page 364
Culture And Adaptation......Page 367
Culture Is Learned......Page 370
Culture Is Shared......Page 371
Culture Is Based On Symbols......Page 375
Culture Is Integrated......Page 376
Functions Of Culture......Page 378
Anthropologist of Note: Bronislaw Malinowski (1884–1942)......Page 379
Culture And Change......Page 380
Ethnocentrism, Cultural Relativism, And Evaluation Of Cultures......Page 382
Anthropology Applied: New Houses for Apache Indians......Page 374
Biocultural Connection: Modifying the Human Body......Page 381
Chapter Checklist......Page 384
Digging into Anthropology......Page 385
Chapter 14: Ethnographic Research—Its History, Methods, And Theories......Page 387
Acculturation Studies......Page 388
Applied Anthropology......Page 389
Studying Cultures At A Distance......Page 390
Studying Peasant Communities......Page 391
Advocacy Anthropology......Page 392
Globalization And Multi-Sited Ethnography......Page 393
Preparatory Research......Page 395
Data Gathering: The Ethnographer’s Approach......Page 396
Social Acceptance......Page 400
Anothropologist of Note: Margaret Mead (1901–1978), Gregory Bateson (1904–1980)......Page 402
Subjectivity, Reflexivity, And Validation......Page 403
Completing An Ethnography......Page 405
Building Ethnological Theories......Page 406
Mentalist Perspective......Page 407
Ethical Responsibilities In Anthropological Research......Page 408
Original Study: The Importance of Trobriand Women......Page 404
Biocultural Connection: Pig Lovers and Pig Haters......Page 409
Chapter Checklist......Page 411
Questions for Reflection......Page 412
Digging into Anthropology......Page 413
Chapter 15: Language And Communication......Page 415
Descriptive Linguistics......Page 418
Morphology, Syntax, And Grammar......Page 419
Historical Linguistics......Page 420
Language Loss And Revival......Page 421
Sociolinguistics......Page 423
Ethnolinguistics......Page 426
Language Versatility......Page 427
Nonverbal Communication......Page 428
Talking Drums And Whistled Speech......Page 430
The Origins Of Language......Page 431
From Speech To Writing......Page 432
Literacy And Modern Telecommunication......Page 434
Original Study: Can Chantek Talk in Codes?......Page 416
Anthropology Applied: When Bambi Spoke Arapaho: Preserving Indigenous Languages......Page 424
Biocultural Connection: The Biology of Human Speech......Page 433
Chapter Checklist......Page 435
Questions for Reflection......Page 436
Digging into Anthropology......Page 437
Chapter 16: Social Identity, Personality, And Gender......Page 439
Self-awareness......Page 440
Social Identity Through Personal Naming......Page 441
Culture And Personality......Page 443
Case Study: Childrearing And Gender Among The Ju/’hoansi......Page 444
Three Childrearing Patterns......Page 445
Group Personality......Page 448
Original Study: The Blessed Curse......Page 450
Intersexuality......Page 451
Transgender......Page 452
Castration......Page 453
Sadhus: Holy Men In Hindu Culture......Page 454
Biocultural Connection: A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Psychosomatic Symptomsand Mental Health......Page 456
Personal Identity And Mental Health In Globalizing Society......Page 457
Anthropologist of Note: Ruth Fulton Benedict (1887–1947)......Page 446
Chapter Checklist......Page 458
Digging into Anthropology......Page 459
Adaptation......Page 461
Adaptation And Culture Areas......Page 462
Characteristics Of Food-Foraging Societies......Page 464
Food-Producing Societies......Page 468
Producing Food In Gardens: Horticulture......Page 469
Producing Food On Farms: Agriculture......Page 471
Herding Grazing Animals: Pastoralism......Page 473
Case Study: Bakhtiari Herders......Page 474
Intensive Agriculture: Urbanization And Peasantry......Page 475
Industrial Food Production......Page 476
Adaptation In Cultural Evolution......Page 477
Types Of Cultural Evolution......Page 479
Case Study: The Environmental Collapse Of Easter Island......Page 480
Chapter Checklist......Page 481
Biocultural Connection: Surviving in the Andes: Aymara Adaptation to High Altitude......Page 463
Orginal Study: Gardens of the Mekranoti Kayapo......Page 470
Anthropology Applied: Agricultural Development and the Anthropologist......Page 472
Questions for Refelection......Page 482
Digging into Anthropology......Page 483
Case Study: The Yam Complex In Trobriand Culture......Page 485
Land And Water Resources......Page 487
Labor Resources And Patterns......Page 488
Reciprocity......Page 493
Redistribution......Page 496
Market Exchange And The Marketplace......Page 498
Local Economies And Global Capitalism......Page 499
Informal Economy And The Escape From State Bureaucracy......Page 503
Athropology Applied: Global Ecotourism and Local Indigenous Culture in Bolivia......Page 492
Biocultural Connection: Cacao: The Love Bean in the Money Tree......Page 500
Anthropologist of Note: Rosita Worl......Page 502
Chapter Checklist......Page 505
Digging into Anthropology......Page 506
Chapter 19: Sex, Marriage, And Family......Page 509
Marriage And The Regulation Of Sexual Relations......Page 510
Sexual And Marriage Practices Among The Nayar......Page 512
Endogamy And Exogamy......Page 513
Distinction Between Marriage And Mating......Page 514
Biocultural Connection: Marriage Prohibitions in the United States......Page 515
Polygamy......Page 517
Other Forms Of Marriage......Page 518
Choice Of Spouse......Page 519
Same-sex Marriage......Page 522
Marriage And Economic Exchange......Page 523
Divorce......Page 524
Family And Household......Page 525
Forms Of The Family......Page 526
Residence Patterns......Page 528
Migrant Workforces......Page 530
Anthropologist of Note: Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908–2009)......Page 516
Original Study: Arranging Marriage in India......Page 520
Chapter Checklist......Page 532
Digging into Anthropology......Page 533
Descent Groups......Page 535
Unilineal Descent......Page 537
Descent Within The Larger Cultural System......Page 541
From Lineage To Clan......Page 544
Phratry And Moiety......Page 546
Bilateral Kinship And The Kindred......Page 547
Kinship Terminology And Kinship Groups......Page 548
The Eskimo System......Page 549
The Hawaiian System......Page 550
Fictive Kin By Ritual Adoption......Page 551
Chapter Checklist......Page 553
Biocultural Connection: Maori Origins: Ancestral Genes and Mythical Canoes......Page 536
Original Study: Honor Killing in the Netherlands......Page 542
Anthropology Applied: Resolving a Native American Tribal Membership Dispute......Page 545
Digging into Anthropology......Page 554
Grouping By Gender......Page 557
Institutions Of Age Grouping......Page 558
Age Grouping In East Africa......Page 559
Grouping By Common Interest......Page 560
Kinds Of Common-interest Associations......Page 561
Men’s And Women’s Associations......Page 563
Grouping By Social Status In Stratified Societies......Page 564
Anthopology Applied: Anthropologists and Social Impact Assessment......Page 565
Maintaining Stratification......Page 568
Social Mobility......Page 570
Original Study: The Jewish Eruv: Symbolic Place in Public Space......Page 562
Biocultural Connection: African Burial Ground Project......Page 569
Questions for Reflection......Page 572
Digging into Anthropology......Page 573
Chapter 22: Politics, Power, War, And Peace......Page 575
Uncentralized Political Systems......Page 576
Centralized Political Systems......Page 579
Politics And Religion......Page 582
Politics And Gender......Page 584
Internalized Control......Page 585
Cultural Control: Witchcraft......Page 586
Holding Trials, Settling Disputes, And Punishing Crimes......Page 587
Why War?......Page 588
Biocultural Connection: Sex, Gender, and Human Violence......Page 591
Ideologies Of Aggression......Page 592
Genocide......Page 594
Politics Of Nonviolent Resistance......Page 595
Anthropologist of Note: Laura Nader (b. 1930)......Page 583
Anthropology Applied: William Ury: Dispute Resolution and the Anthropologist......Page 597
Chapter Checklist......Page 598
Digging into Anthropology......Page 599
Chapter 23: Spirituality, Religion, And Shamanism......Page 601
Roles Of Spirituality And Religion......Page 602
Myth And The Mapping Of A Sacred Worldview......Page 603
Gods And Goddesses......Page 604
Ancestral Spirits......Page 605
Other Types Of Supernatural Beings And Spiritual Forces......Page 606
Priests And Priestesses......Page 607
Biocultural Connection: Change Your Karma and Change Your Sex?......Page 608
Shamans......Page 609
Rites Of Passage......Page 613
Rites Of Intensification......Page 614
Magical Rituals......Page 615
Pilgrimages: Devotion In Motion......Page 617
Desecration: Ruining Sacred Sites......Page 619
Original Study: Sacred Law in Global Capitalism......Page 620
Syncretic Religions Across The Atlantic: Vodou In Haiti......Page 622
Secularization And Religious Pluralism......Page 623
Anthropologist of Note: Michael J. Harner (b. 1929)......Page 611
Chapter Checklist......Page 625
Questions for Reflection......Page 626
Digging into Anthropology......Page 627
Chapter 24: The Arts......Page 629
The Anthropological Study Of Art......Page 630
Visual Art......Page 632
Verbal Art......Page 635
Musical Art......Page 639
The Functions Of Art......Page 641
Art, Globalization, And Cultural Survival......Page 644
Original Study: The Modern Tattoo Community......Page 633
Biocultural Connection: Peyote Art: Divine Visions among the Huichol......Page 636
Anthropology Applied: Bringing Back the Past......Page 646
Questions for Reflection......Page 647
Digging into Anthropology......Page 648
Chapter 25: Processes Of Cultural Change......Page 651
Innovation......Page 652
Anthropologist of Note: Eric R. Wolf (1923–1999)......Page 653
Cultural Loss......Page 655
Acculturation And Ethnocide......Page 656
Case Study: Ethnocide Of The Yanomami In Amazonia......Page 657
Reactions To Change......Page 659
Revitalization Movements......Page 660
Rebellion And Revolution......Page 662
Indigenous Accommodation To Modernization......Page 665
Globalization In The “underdeveloped” World......Page 667
Anthropology Applied: Development Anthropology and Dams......Page 668
Biocultural Connection: Studying the Emergence of New Diseases......Page 669
Chapter Checklist......Page 670
Digging into Anthropology......Page 671
Cultural Revolutions: From Terra
Incognita to Google Earth......Page 673
A Global Culture?......Page 675
Global Integration Processes......Page 676
Pluralistic Societies And Fragmentation......Page 677
Structural Power In The Age Of Globalization......Page 681
Military Hard Power......Page 682
Economic Hard Power......Page 683
Problems Of Structural Violence......Page 684
Poverty......Page 685
Anthropology Applied: Anthropologist S. Ann Dunham, Mother of a U.S. President......Page 686
Pollution And Global Warming......Page 688
Ethnic Minorities And Indigenous Peoples: Struggles For Human Rights......Page 690
Anthropology’s Role In Meeting The Challenges Of Globalization......Page 693
Biocultural Connection: Toxic Breast Milk Threatens Arctic Culture......Page 691
Anthropologist of Note: Paul Farmer (b. 1959)......Page 694
Chapter Checklist......Page 695
Questions for Reflection......Page 696
Digging into Anthropology......Page 697
Glossary......Page 698
Bibliography......Page 708
Index......Page 724