Anatomy and Physiology: From Science to Life

Copyright
Notes to Students
Notes to Instructors
Resources for Integrating Laboratory Experiences
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
Brief Contents
Contents
Clinical Connections
Chapter 1: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY
	Jaime’s Story
	Introduction
	1.1 The human body is composed of six levels of structural organization and contains eleven systems
	1.2 The human body carries on basic life processes that distinguish it from nonliving objects
		Basic Life Processes
		Homeostasis
		Body Fluids
	1.3 Homeostasis is controlled through feedback systems.
		Feedback Systems
		Homeostatic Imbalances
	1.4 The human body is described using the anatomical position and specific terms.
		Body Positions
		Regional Names
		Directional Terms
		Planes and Sections
	1.5 Body cavities are spaces within the body that help protect, separate, and support internal organs.
	1.6 Serous membranes line the walls of body cavities and cover the organs within them.
	1.7 The abdominopelvic cavity is divided into regions or quadrants.
		Jaime’s Story: Epilogue and Discussion
		Concept and Resource Summary
		Understanding the Concepts
Chapter 2: THE CHEMICAL LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
	Eugene’s Story
	Introduction
	2.1 Chemical elements are composed of small units called atoms.
		Structure of Atoms
		Atomic Number and Mass Number
		Atomic Mass
		Ions, Molecules, and Compounds
	2.2 Atoms are held together by chemical bonds.
		Ionic Bonds
		Covalent Bonds
		Hydrogen Bonds
	2.3 Chemical reactions occur when atoms combine with or separate from other atoms.
		Forms of Energy and Chemical Reactions
		Energy Transfer in Chemical Reactions
		Types of Chemical Reactions
	2.4 Inorganic compounds include water, salts, acids, and bases.
		Water
		Solutions, Colloids, and Suspensions
		Inorganic Acids, Bases, and Salts
		Acid–Base Balance: The Concept of pH
		Maintaining pH: Buffer Systems
	2.5 Organic molecules are large carbon-based molecules that carry out complex functions in living systems.
	2.6 Carbohydrates function as building blocks and sources of energy.
		Monosaccharides and Disaccharides: The Simple Sugars
		Polysaccharides
	2.7 Lipids are important for cell membrane structure,  energy storage, and hormone production.
		Fatty Acids
		Triglycerides
		Phospholipids
		Steroids
		Other Lipids
	2.8 Proteins are amino acid complexes serving many diverse roles.
		Amino Acids and Polypeptides
		Levels of Structural Organization in Proteins
		Enzymes
	2.9 Nucleic acids contain genetic material and function in protein synthesis.
	2.10 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the principal energy transferring molecule in living systems.
		Eugene’s Story: Epilogue and Discussion
		Concept and Resource Summary
		Understanding the Concepts
Chapter 3: THE CELLULAR LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
	Joseph’s Story
	Introduction
	3.1 The principal parts of a cell are the plasma membrane, the cytoplasm, and the nucleus.
	3.2 The plasma membrane contains the cytoplasm and regulates exchanges with the extracellular environment.
		The Lipid Bilayer
		Arrangement of Membrane Proteins
		Functions of Membrane Proteins
		Membrane Fluidity
		Membrane Permeability
		Gradients across the Plasma Membrane
	3.3 Transport of a substance across the plasma membrane occurs by both passive and active processes.
		Passive Processes
		Active Processes
	3.4 Cytoplasm consists of the cytosol and organelles.
		Cytosol
		Organelles
	3.5 The nucleus contains nucleoli and genes.
	3.6 Cells make proteins by transcribing and translating the genetic information contained in DNA.
		Transcription
		Translation
	3.7 Cell division allows the replacement of cells and the production of new cells.
		Somatic Cell Division
		Reproductive Cell Division
	Joseph’s Story: Epilogue and Discussion
	Concept and Resource Summary
	Understanding the Concepts
Chapter 4: THE TISSUE LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
	John Doe’s Story
	Introduction
	4.1 Human body tissues can be classified as epithelial, connective, muscle, or nervous.
	4.2 Cell junctions hold cells together to form tissues.
	4.3 Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces, lines organs and body cavities, or secretes substances.
		Covering and Lining Epithelium
		Glandular Epithelium
	4.4 Connective tissue binds organs together, stores energy reserves as fat, and helps provide immunity
		Connective Tissue Extracellular Matrix
		Connective Tissue Cells
		Types of Connective Tissue
	4.5 Epithelial and connective tissues have obvious structural differences.
	4.6 Membranes cover the surface of the body, line body cavities, and cover organs.
		Epithelial Membranes
		Synovial Membranes
	4.7 Muscle tissue generates the physical force needed to make body structures move.
	4.8 Nervous tissue consists of neurons and neuroglia.
	4.9 The ability of an injured tissue to repair itself depends on the extent of damage and the regenerative ability of the injured tissue.
	John Doe’s Story: Epilogue and Discussion
	Concept and Resource Summary
	Understanding the Concepts
Chapter 5: THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
	Richard’s Story
	Introduction
	5.1 Skin is composed of a superficial epidermis and a deeper dermis.
	5.2 The layers of the epidermis include the stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, and stratum corneum.
		Cells of the Epidermis
		Strata of the Epidermis
		Growth of the Epidermis
	5.3 The dermis contains blood vessels, nerves, sensory receptors, hair follicles, and glands.
	5.4 Skin color is a result of the pigments melanin, carotene,  and hemoglobin.
	5.5 The functions of hair, skin glands, and nails include protection and body temperature regulation.
		Hair
		Glands of the Skin
		Nails
	5.6 The two major types of skin are thin skin and thick skin.
	5.7 Skin regulates body temperature, protects underlying tissues, provides cutaneous sensations, excretes body wastes, and synthesizes vitamin D.
		Regulation of Body Temperature
		Blood Reservoir
		Protection
		Cutaneous Sensations
		Excretion and Absorption
		Synthesis of Vitamin D
	5.8 Skin damage sets in motion a sequence of events that repairs the skin.
		Epidermal Wound Healing
		Deep Wound Healing
	Richard’s Story: Epilogue and Discussion
	Concept and Resource Summary
	Understanding the Concepts
Chapter 6: INTRODUCTION TO THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
	Cathy’s Story
	Introduction
	6.1 Skeletal system functions include support, protection, movement, mineral homeostasis, blood cell production, and energy storage.
	6.2 Bones are classified as long, short, flat, irregular, or sesamoid.
	6.3 Long bones have a diaphysis, a medullary cavity, epiphyses, metaphyses, and a periosteum.
		6.4 Osseous tissue can be arranged as compact bone tissue or spongy bone tissue.
			Cells of Osseous Tissue
			Types of Osseous Tissue
	6.5 Bones are richly supplied with blood vessels and nerves.
	6.6 The two types of bone formation are intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification.
		Intramembranous Ossification
		Endochondral Ossification
	6.7 Bones grow longer at the epiphyseal plate and increase indiameter by the addition of new osseous tissue around the outer surface.
		Growth in Length
		Growth in Thickness
	6.8 Bone remodeling renews osseous tissue, redistributes bone extracellular matrix, and repairs bone injuries.
	6.9 Dietary and hormonal factors influence bone growth and remodeling.
		Cathy’s Story: Epilogue and Discussion
		Concept and Resource Summary
		Understanding the Concepts
Chapter 7: THE AXIAL SKELETON
	Fernando’s Story
	Introduction
	7.1 Bones of the axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton have characteristic surface markings.
	7.2 The skull provides attachment sites for muscles and membranes, and protects and supports the brain and sense organs.
	7.3 The cranial bones include the frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones.
		Frontal Bone
		Parietal Bones
		Temporal Bones
		Occipital Bone
		Sphenoid Bone
		Ethmoid Bone
	7.4 Facial bones include the nasal bones, maxillae, zygomatic bones, lacrimal bones, palatine bones, inferior nasal conchae, vomer, and mandible.
		Nasal Bones
		Maxillae
		Zygomatic Bones
		Lacrimal Bones
		Palatine Bones
		Inferior Nasal Conchae
		Vomer
		Mandible
	7.5 Unique features of the skull include the nasal septum, orbits, sutures, paranasal sinuses, and fontanels.
		Nasal Septum
		Orbits
		Paranasal Sinuses
		Sutures
		Fontanels
	7.6 The hyoid bone supports the tongue and attaches to muscles of the tongue, pharynx, and larynx
	7.7 The vertebral column protects the spinal cord, supports the head, and is a point of attachment for bones and muscles.
		Normal Curves of the Vertebral Column
		Intervertebral Discs
	7.8 A vertebra usually consists of a body, a vertebral arch, and several processes.
		Body
		Vertebral Arch
		Processes
	7.9 Vertebrae in the different regions of the vertebral column vary in size, shape, and detail.
		Cervical Region
		Thoracic Region
		Lumbar Region
		Sacrum
		Coccyx
	7.10 The thoracic cage protects vital organs in the thorax and upper abdomen and provides support for the bones of the upper limbs.
		Sternum
		Ribs
	Fernando’s Story: Epilogue and Discussion
	Concept and Resource Summary
	Understanding the Concepts
Chapter 8: THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON
	Hassan’s Story
	Introduction
	8.1 Each pectoral girdle, which consists of a clavicle and scapula, attaches an upper limb to the axial skeleton.
		Clavicle
		Scapula
	8.2 The bones of each upper limb include the humerus, ulna, radius, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges
		Humerus
		Ulna and Radius
		Carpals, Metacarpals, and Phalanges
	8.3 The pelvic girdle supports the vertebral column and pelvic viscera and attaches the lower limbs to the axial skeleton.
		Ilium
		Ischium
		Pubis
		Acetabulum
		False and True Pelves
	8.4 Male pelves are generally larger, heavier, and have more prominent markings; female pelves are generally wider and shallower.
	8.5 The bones of each lower limb include the femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges.
		Femur
		Patella
		Tibia and Fibula
		Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges
	Hassan’s Story: Epilogue and Discussion
	Concept and Resource Summary
	Understanding the Concepts
Chapter 9: ARTICULATIONS
	Virtjean’s Story
	Introduction
	9.1 Joints are classified structurally and functionally
	9.2 Fibrous joints lack a synovial cavity and are held together by dense connective tissue.
		Sutures
		Syndesmoses
		Interosseous Membranes
	9.3 Cartilaginous joints lack a synovial cavity and are held together by cartilage.
		Synchondroses
		Symphyses
	9.4 Articulating surfaces of bones at a synovial joint are covered with articular cartilage and enclosed within an articular (synovial) cavity.
		Articular Capsule
		Synovial Fluid
		Accessory Ligaments and Articular Menisci
		Bursae and Tendon Sheaths
	9.5 Synovial joint movement terminology indicates the direction of movement or the relationships of body parts during movement.
		Gliding
		Angular Movements
		Rotation
		Special Movements
	9.6 Synovial joints are described as plane, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, or ball-and-socket.
		Plane Joints
		Hinge Joints
		Pivot Joints
		Condyloid Joints
		Saddle Joints
		Ball-and-Socket Joints
	9.7 The shoulder, elbow, hip, and knee joints provide examples of synovial joint components, classifications, and movements.
		The Shoulder Joint
		The Elbow Joint
		The Hip Joint
		The Knee Joint
	Virtjean’s Story: Epilogue and Discussion
	Concept and Resource Summary
	Understanding the Concepts
Chapter 10: MUSCLE TISSUE
	Jesse’s Story
	Introduction
	10.1 Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle tissues differ in location, structure, and function.
	10.2 Muscle tissue performs four functions and possesses four properties.
		Functions of Muscle Tissue
		Properties of Muscle Tissue
	10.3 Skeletal muscles are surrounded by connective  tissues and are well supplied with nerves and blood vessels.
		Connective Tissue Components
		Nerve and Blood Supply
	10.4 Each skeletal muscle fiber is covered by a sarcolemma; each of its myofibrils is surrounded by sarcoplasmic reticulum and contains sarcomeres.
		Sarcolemma, Transverse Tubules, and Sarcoplasm
		Myofibrils and Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
		Filaments and the Sarcomere
		Muscle Proteins
	10.5 The neuromuscular junction is the site where a muscle action potential is initiated.
	10.6 An action potential releases calcium ions that allow thick filaments to bind to and pull thin filaments toward the center of the sarcomere.
		Excitation–Contraction Coupling
		The Contraction Cycle
		Relaxation
	10.7 Muscle tension is controlled by stimulation frequency and motor unit recruitment.
		Motor Units
		Twitch Contraction
		Frequency of Stimulation
		Motor Unit Recruitment
		Muscle Tone
		Isotonic and Isometric Contractions
	10.8 Muscle fibers produce ATP from creatine phosphate, byanaerobic cellular respiration, and by  aerobic cellular respiration.
		Production of ATP in Muscle Fibers
		Muscle Fatigue
		Oxygen Consumption after Exercise
	10.9 Skeletal muscle fibers are classified as slow oxidative fibers, fast oxidative–glycolytic fibers, or fast glycolytic fibers.
		Slow Oxidative Fibers
		Fast Oxidative–Glycolytic Fibers
		Fast Glycolytic Fibers
		Distribution and Recruitment of Different Types of Fibers
	10.10 Cardiac muscle tissue is found in the heart, and smooth muscle tissue is found in hollow internal structures.
		Cardiac Muscle Tissue
		Smooth Muscle Tissue
	Jesse’s Story: Epilogue and Discussion
	Concept and Resource Summary
	Understanding the Concepts
Chapter 11: THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
	Stewart’s Story
	Introduction
	11.1 Skeletal muscles produce movement when the insertion is pulled toward the origin.
		Muscle Attachment Sites: Origin and Insertion
		Lever Systems and Leverage
		Effects of Fascicle Arrangement
		Coordination among Muscles
	11.2 Skeletal muscles are named based on size, shape, action, location, or attachments.
	11.3 Muscles of the head produce facial expressions, eyeball movement, and assist in biting, chewing, swallowing, and speech.
		Muscles of Facial Expression
		Muscles That Move the Eyeballs
		Muscles That Move the Mandible
		Muscles That Move the Tongue
	11.4 Muscles of the neck assist in swallowing and speech, and allow balance and movement of the head.
		Muscles That Move the Hyoid Bone and Larynx
		Muscles That Move the Head
	11.5 Muscles of the abdomen protect the abdominal viscera, move the vertebral column, and assist breathing.
		Muscles That Protect Abdominal Viscera and Move the Vertebral Column
		Muscles Used in Breathing
	11.6 Muscles of the pelvic floor and perineum support the pelvic viscera, function as sphincters, and assist in urination, erection, ejaculation, and defecation.
		Muscles of the Pelvic Floor
		Muscles of the Perineum
	11.7 Muscles inserting on the upper limb move and stabilize the pectoral girdle, and move the arm, forearm, and hand.
		Muscles That Move the Pectoral Girdle
		Muscles That Move the Humerus
		Muscles That Move the Radius and Ulna
		Muscles That Move the Wrist, Hand, and Fingers
		Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand
	11.8 Deep muscles of the back move the head and vertebral column.
	11.9 Muscles originating on the pelvic girdle or lower limb move the femur, leg, and foot.
		Muscles That Move the Femur
		Muscles That Move the Femur, Tibia, and Fibula
		Muscles That Move the Foot and Toes
		Intrinsic Muscles of the Foot
	Stewart’s Story: Epilogue and Discussion
	Concept and Resource Summary
	Understanding the Concepts
Chapter 12: INTRODUCTION TO THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
	Jennifer’s Story
	Introduction
	12.1 The nervous system maintains homeostasis and integrates all body activities.
	12.2 The nervous system is organized into the central and peripheral nervous system.
		Central Nervous System
		Peripheral Nervous System
	12.3 Neurons are responsible for most of the unique functions of the nervous system.
		Parts of a Neuron
		Structural Diversity and Classification of Neurons
	12.4 Neuroglia support, nourish, and protect neurons and maintain homeostasis.
		Neuroglia of the CNS
		Neuroglia of the PNS
		Myelination
		Gray and White Matter
	12.5 Neurons communicate with other cells.
		Ion Channels
		Resting Membrane Potential
	12.6 Graded potentials are the first response of a neuron to stimulation.
	12.7 The action potential is an all-or-none electrical signal.
		Depolarizing Phase
		Repolarizing Phase
		After-Hyperpolarizing Phase
		Refractory Period
	12.8 Action potentials propagate from the trigger zone to axon terminals.
		Continuous and Saltatory Conduction
		Factors That Affect the Speed of Propagation
		Encoding of Stimulus Intensity
		Comparison of Electrical Signals Produced by Excitable Cells
	12.9 The synapse is a special junction between neurons.
		Chemical Synapses
		Electrical Synapses
		Excitatory and Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials
		Summation of Postsynaptic Potentials
		Removal of Neurotransmitter
	12.10 PNS neurons have a greater capacity for repair and regeneration than CNS neurons.
		Damage and Repair in the CNS
		Damage and Repair in the PNS
	Jennifer’s Story: Epilogue and Discussion
	Concept and Resource Summary
	Understanding the Concepts
Chapter 13: THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
	Annette’s Story
	Introduction
	13.1 The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, and is protected by several structures.
		Skeletal Protection
		Meninges
		Cerebrospinal Fluid
	13.2 The CNS is nourished and protected by blood and cerebrospinal fluid.
		Blood Flow to the Brain and Spinal Cord
		Cerebrospinal Fluid
	13.3 The cerebrum interprets sensory impulses, controls muscular movements, and functions in intellectual processes.
		Cerebral Cortex
		Lobes of the Cerebrum
		Cerebral White Matter
		Basal Nuclei
	13.4 The cerebral cortex can be divided functionally into sensory areas, motor areas, and association areas.
		Sensory Areas
		Motor Areas
		Association Areas
		Hemispheric Lateralization
	13.5 The diencephalon includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, and pineal gland.
		Thalamus
		Hypothalamus
		Pineal Gland
	13.6 The midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata of the brain stem serve as a relay station and control center
		Midbrain
		Pons
		Medulla Oblongata
		Reticular Formation
	13.7 The cerebellum coordinates movements and helps maintain normal muscle tone, posture, and balance.
	13.8 The limbic system controls emotions, behavior, and memory.
	13.9 The spinal cord receives sensory input and provides motor output through spinal nerves.
		External Anatomy of the Spinal Cord
		Internal Anatomy of the Spinal Cord
	13.10 The spinal cord conducts impulses between spinal nerves and the brain, and contains reflex pathways.
		Sensory and Motor Tracts
		Spinal Reflexes
	Annette’s Story: Epilogue and Discussion
	Concept and Resource Summary
	Understanding the Concepts
Chapter 14: THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
	14.1 Nerves have three protective connective tissue coverings.
	Nick’s Story
	Introduction
	14.2 Twelve pairs of cranial nerves distribute primarily to regions of the head and neck.
		Olfactory (I) Nerve
		Optic (II) Nerve
		Oculomotor (III), Trochlear (IV), and Abducens (VI) Nerves
		Trigeminal (V) Nerve
		Facial (VII) Nerve
		Vestibulocochlear (VIII) Nerve
		Glossopharyngeal (IX) Nerve
		Vagus (X) Nerve
		Accessory (XI) Nerve
		Hypoglossal (XII) Nerve
	14.3 Each spinal nerve branches into a posterior ramus, an anterior ramus, a meningeal branch, and rami communicantes.
		Branches
		Plexuses
		Intercostal Nerves
	14.4 A reflex is produced by a reflex arc in response to a particular stimulus.
		Reflexes and Reflex Arcs
		The Stretch Reflex
		The Flexor Reflex
	14.5 The autonomic nervous system produces involuntary movements.
	14.6 The ANS includes preganglionic neurons, autonomic ganglia and plexuses, and postganglionic neurons.
		Preganglionic Neurons
		Autonomic Ganglia
		Postganglionic Neurons
		Autonomic Plexuses
		Structure of the Sympathetic Division
		Structure of the Parasympathetic Division
		Structure of the Enteric Nervous System
	14.7 ANS neurons release acetylcholine or norepinephrine, resulting in excitation or inhibition.
		Cholinergic Neurons and Receptors
		Adrenergic Neurons and Receptors
	14.8 The sympathetic division supports vigorous physical activity; the parasympathetic division conserves body energy.
		Sympathetic Responses
		Parasympathetic Responses
	14.9 Autonomic reflexes regulate controlled body conditions and are primarily integrated by the hypothalamus.
		Autonomic Reflexes
		Autonomic Control by Higher Centers
	Nick’s Story: Epilogue and Discussion
	Concept and Resource Summary
	Understanding the Concepts
Chapter 15: SENSORY, MOTOR, AND INTEGRATIVE SYSTEMS
	Mustafa’s Story
	Introduction
	15.1 Sensations arise as a result of stimulation, transduction, generation, and integration.
		Sensory Modalities
		The Process of Sensation
	15.2 Sensory receptors can be classified structurally, functionally, or by the type of stimulus detected.
		Types of Sensory Receptors
		Adaptation in Sensory Receptors
	15.3 Somatic sensations include tactile sensations, thermal sensations, pain, and proprioception.
		Tactile Sensations
		Thermal Sensations
		Pain Sensations
		Proprioceptive Sensations
	15.4 Somatic sensory pathways relay information from sensory receptors to the cerebral cortex and cerebellum.
		Posterior Column–Medial Lemniscus Pathway to the Cerebral Cortex
		Spinothalamic Pathway to the Cerebral Cortex
		Somatic Sensory Pathways to the Cerebellum
	15.5 The somatosensory and primary motor areas of the cerebral cortex unequally serve different body regions.
	15.6 Somatic motor pathways carry impulses from the brain to effectors.
		Organization of Upper Motor Neuron Pathways
		Modulation of Movement by the Basal Nuclei
		Modulation of Movement by the Cerebellum
	15.7 Wakefulness and memory are integrative functions of the brain.
		Wakefulness and Sleep
		Learning and Memory
	Mustafa’s Story: Epilogue and Discussion
	Concept and Resource Summary
	Understanding the Concepts
Chapter 16: THE SPECIAL SENSES
	Dan’s Story
	Introduction
	16.1 Impulses for smell propagate along the olfactory nerve to the brain.
		Anatomy of the Olfactory Epithelium
		Physiology of Olfaction
		Odor Thresholds and Adaptation
		The Olfactory Pathway
	16.2 Impulses for taste propagate along the facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves to the brain.
		Anatomy of Taste Buds and Papillae
		Physiology of Gustation
		Taste Thresholds and Adaptation
		The Gustatory Pathway
	16.3 The eye is protected by eyelids, eyelashes, eyebrows, and a lacrimal apparatus.
		Accessory Structures of the Eye
	16.4 The eye is constructed of three layers.
		Fibrous Tunic
		Vascular Tunic
		Retina
		Lens
		Interior of the Eyeball
	16.5 Image formation involves refraction of light rays, accommodation, pupil constriction, and convergence.
		Refraction of Light Rays
		Accommodation and the Near Point of Vision
		Refraction Abnormalities
		Constriction of the Pupil
		Convergence
	16.6 The neural pathway of light is photoreceptors → bipolar cells → ganglion cells → optic nerve → primary visual cortex.
		Photoreceptors and Photopigments
		Light and Dark Adaptation
		Release of Neurotransmitter by Photoreceptors
		The Visual Pathway
	16.7 The ear is divided into external, middle, and internal regions.
		Anatomy of the Ear
	16.8 The pathway of sound is tympanic membrane → ossicles →ovalwindow →cochlea →vestibulocochlear nerve →primary auditory cotex.
		The Nature of Sound Waves
		Physiology of Hearing
		The Auditory Pathway
	16.9 Impulses for equilibrium propagate along the vestibulocochlear nerve to the brain.
		Physiology of Equilibrium
		Equilibrium Pathways
	Dan’s Story: Epilogue and Discussion
	Concept and Resource Summary
	Understanding the Concepts
Chapter 17: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
	Lisa’s Story
	Introduction
	17.1 The nervous and endocrine systems function together to regulate body activities.
		Endocrine Glands
	17.2 The secretion of hormones is regulated by the nervous system, chemical changes in the blood, and other hormones.
		The Role of Hormone Receptors
		Chemical Classes of Hormones
		Hormone Transport in the Blood
		Mechanism of Hormone Action
		Control of Hormone Secretion
	17.3 The hypothalamus regulates anterior pituitary hormone secretion of seven important hormones.
		The Hypothalamus
		The Pituitary Gland
	17.4 Oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone originate in the hypothalamus and are stored in the posterior pituitary
		Oxytocin
		Antidiuretic Hormone
	17.5 The thyroid gland secretes thyroxine, triiodothyronine, and calcitonin.
		Formation, Storage, and Release of Thyroid Hormones
		Actions of Thyroid Hormones
		Control of Thyroid Hormone Secretion
		Calcitonin
	17.6 The parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone, which regulates calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ion levels.
		Parathyroid Hormone
	17.7 The adrenal glands are structurally and functionally two independent endocrine glands.
		Adrenal Cortex
		Adrenal Medulla
	17.8 The pancreatic islets regulate blood glucose level by secreting glucagon and insulin.
		Regulation of Glucagon and Insulin Secretion
	17.9 The ovaries produce estrogens, progesterone, and inhibin; the testes produce testosterone and inhibin.
	17.10 The pineal gland, thymus, and other organs also secrete hormones.
		The Pineal Gland
		The Thymus
		Hormones from Other Endocrine Tissues and Organs
		Eicosanoids
	Lisa’s Story: Epilogue and Discussion
	Concept and Resource Summary
	Understanding the Concepts
Chapter 18: THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: THE BLOOD
	Ed’s Story
	Introduction
	18.1 Blood contains plasma and formed elements and transports essential substances through the body.
		Functions of Blood
		Physical Characteristics of Blood
		Components of Blood
	18.2 Hemopoiesis is the production of formed elements.
	18.3 Mature red blood cells are biconcave cells containing hemoglobin.
		RBC Anatomy
		RBC Physiology
	18.4 Red blood cells have a life cycle of 120 days.
	18.5 Erythropoiesis is the process of red blood cell formation.
	18.6 Blood is categorized into groups based on surface antigens.
		ABO Blood Group
		Transfusions
		Rh Blood Group
		Typing and Cross-Matching Blood for Transfusion
	18.7 White blood cells combat inflammation and infection.
		WBC Types
		WBC Functions
		WBC Life Span
	18.8 Platelets reduce blood loss from damaged vessels.
	18.9 Hemostasis is the sequence of events that stops bleeding from a damaged blood vessel.
		Vascular Spasm
		Platelet Plug Formation
		Blood Clotting
		Hemostatic Control Mechanisms
		Clotting in Blood Vessels
	Ed’s Story : Epilogue and Discussion
	Concept and Resource Summary
	Understanding the Concepts
Chapter 19: THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: THE HEART
	Hiroshi’s Story
	Introduction
	19.1 The heart is located in the mediastinum and has a muscular wall covered by pericardium.
		Location of the Heart
		Pericardium
		Layers of the Heart Wall
	19.2 The heart has four chambers, two upper atria and two lower ventricles.
		Right Atrium
		Right Ventricle
		Left Atrium
		Left Ventricle
		Myocardial Thickness and Function
	19.3 Heart valves ensure one-way flow of blood.
		Operation of the Atrioventricular Valves
		Operation of the Semilunar Valves
	19.4 The heart pumps blood to the lungs for oxygenation, then pumps oxygen-rich blood throughout the body.
		Systemic and Pulmonary Circulations
		Coronary Circulation
	19.5 The cardiac conduction system coordinates heart contractions for effective pumping.
		Cardiac Muscle Tissue
		Autorhythmic Fibers: The Cardiac Conduction System
		Contraction of Contractile Fibers
		ATP Production in Cardiac Muscle
	19.6 The electrocardiogram is a record of electrical activity associated with each heartbeat.
		Electrocardiogram
		Correlation of ECG Waves with Heart Activity
	19.7 The cardiac cycle represents all of the events associated with one heartbeat.
		Heart Sounds during the Cardiac Cycle
		Pressure and Volume Changes during the Cardiac Cycle
	19.8 Cardiac output is the blood volume ejected by a ventricle each minute.
		Regulation of Stroke Volume
		Regulation of Heart Rate
	Hiroshi’s Story: Epilogue and Discussion
	Concept and Resource Summary
	Understanding the Concepts
Chapter 20: THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: BLOOD VESSELS
	David’s Story
	Introduction
	20.1 Most blood vessel wallshave three distinct tissue layers.
		Tunica Interna
		Tunica Media
		Tunica Externa
	20.2 Blood ejected from the heart flows through elastic arteries, muscular arteries, and then arterioles.
		Elastic Arteries
		Muscular Arteries
		Anastomoses
		Arterioles
	20.3 Capillaries are microscopic blood vessels that function in exchange between blood and interstitial fluid.
		Structure of Capillaries
		Types of Capillaries
		Autoregulation of Capillary Blood Flow
		Capillary Exchange
	20.4 Venules and veins return blood to the heart.
		Venules
		Veins
		Venous Return
		Blood Distribution
	20.5 Blood flows from regions of higher pressure to those of lower pressure.
		Blood Pressure
		Vascular Resistance
	20.6 Blood pressure is regulated by neural and hormonal negative feedback systems.
		Role of the Cardiovascular Center
		Neural Regulation of Blood Pressure
		Hormonal Regulation of Blood Pressure
	20.7 Measurement of the pulse and blood pressure helps assess cardiovascular system function.
		Pulse
		Measuring Blood Pressure
	20.8 The two main circulatory routes are the pulmonary circulation and the systemic circulation.
		Pulmonary Circulation
		Systemic Circulation
	20.9 Systemic arteries carry blood from the heart to all body organs except the lungs.
		The Aorta and Its Branches
		Ascending Aorta
		The Arch of the Aorta
		Thoracic Aorta
		Abdominal Aorta
		Arteries of the Pelvis and Lower Limbs
	20.10 Systemic veins return blood to the heart from all body organs except the lungs.
		Veins of the Head and Neck
		Veins of the Upper Limbs
		Veins of the Thorax
		Veins of the Abdomen and Pelvis
		Veins of the Lower Limbs
		Hepatic Portal Circulation
	David’s Story: Epilogue and Discussion
	Concept and Resource Summary
	Understanding the Concepts
Chapter 21: THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY
	Marlene’s Story
	Introduction
	21.1 The lymphatic system drains interstitial fluid, transports dietary lipids, and protects against invasion.
	21.2 Lymph flows through lymphatic capillaries, lymphatic vessels, and lymph nodes.
		Lymphatic Capillaries
		Lymph Trunks and Ducts
		Formation and Flow of Lymph
	21.3 The lymphatic organs and tissues include the thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, and lymphatic follicles.
		Thymus
		Lymph Nodes
		Spleen
		Lymphatic Follicles
	21.4 Innate immunity includes external physical and chemical barriers and various internal defenses.
		First Line of Defense: Skin and Mucous Membranes
		Second Line of Defense: Internal Defenses
	21.5 The complement system destroys microbes through phagocytosis, cytolysis, and inflammation.
	21.6 Adaptive immunity involves the production of a specific lymphocyte or antibody against a specifi c antigen.
		Maturation of T Cells and B Cells
		Types of Adaptive Immunity
		Clonal Selection
		Antigens and Antigen Receptors
		Major Histocompatibility Complex Molecules
		Processing and Presenting Antigens
		Cytokines
	21.7 In cell-mediated immunity, cytotoxic T cells directly attack target cells.
		Activation of T Cells
		Elimination of Invaders
	21.8 In antibody-mediated immunity, antibodies specifically target a particular antigen.
		Activation and Clonal Selection of B Cells
		Antibodies
		Antibody Actions
	21.9 Immunological memory results in a more intenses econdary response to an antigen.
	Marlene’s Story: Epilogue and Discussion
	Concept and Resource Summary
	Understanding the Concepts
Chapter 22: THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
	Cari’s Story
	Introduction
	22.1 Inhaled air travels in the upper respiratory system through the nasal cavities and then through the pharynx.
		Nose
		Pharynx
	22.2 Inhaled air travels in the lower respiratory system from the larynx to alveoli.
		Larynx
		The Structures of Voice Production
		Trachea
		Bronchi
		Lungs
		22.3 Inhalation and exhalation result from pressure changes caused by muscle contraction and relaxation.
			Pressure Changes during Pulmonary Ventilation
			Other Factors Affecting Pulmonary Ventilation
			Modified Respiratory Movements
		22.4 Lung volumes and capacities are measured to determine the respiratory status of an individual.
		22.5 Oxygen and carbon dioxide diffusion is based on partial pressure gradients and solubility.
		22.6 Respiration occurs between alveoli and pulmonary capillaries and between systemic capillaries and tissue cells.
		22.7 Oxygen is primarily transported attached to hemoglobin, while carbon dioxide is transported in three different ways.
			Oxygen Transport
			Carbon Dioxide Transport
			Summary of Gas Exchange and Transport
		22.8 The basic rhythm of respiration is controlled by the respiratory center in the brain stem.
			Medullary Rhythmicity Area
			Pneumotaxic Area
			Apneustic Area
		22.9 Respiration may be modified by cortical influences, chemical stimuli, proprioceptor input, and the inflation reflex.
			Cortical Influences on Respiration
			Chemoreceptor Regulation of Respiration
			Proprioceptor Stimulation of Respiration
			The Inflation Reflex
			Other Influences on Respiration
		22.10 Acid–base balance is maintained by controlling the H+ concentration of body fluids.
			The Actions of Buffer Systems
			Exhalation of Carbon Dioxide
			Acid–Base Imbalances
	Cari’s Story: Epilogue and Discussion
	Concept and Resource Summary
	Understanding the Concepts
Chapter 23: THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
	Zachary’s Story
	Introduction
	23.1 The GI tract is a continuous multilayered tube extending from the mouth to the anus.
		Overview of the Digestive System
		Layers of the GI Tract
		Peritoneum
		Neural Innervation of the GI Tract
	23.2 The mouth lubricates and begins digestion of food, and maneuvers it to the pharynx for swallowing.
		Tongue
		Teeth
		Salivary Glands
		Mechanical and Chemical Digestion in the Mouth
	23.3 Swallowing consists of voluntary oral, involuntary pharyngeal, and involuntary esophageal stages.
		Pharynx
		Esophagus
		Deglutition
	23.4 The stomach mechanically breaks down the bolus and mixes it with gastric secretions.
		Anatomy of the Stomach
		Histology of the Stomach
		Mechanical and Chemical Digestion in the Stomach
	23.5 The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice, the liver secretes bile, and the gallbladder stores and concentrates bile.
		Pancreas
		Liver
		Gallbladder
	23.6 In the small intestine, chyme mixes with digestive juices from the small intestine, pancreas, and liver.
		Anatomy of the Small Intestine
		Histology of the Small Intestine
		Role of Intestinal Juice and Brush Border Enzymes
		Mechanical Digestion in the Small Intestine
		Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
		Absorption in the Small Intestine
	23.7 In the large intestine, the final secretion and absorption of nutrients occur as chyme moves toward the rectum.
		Anatomy of the Large Intestine
		Histology of the Large Intestine
		Mechanical Digestion in the Large Intestine
		Chemical Digestion in the Large Intestine
		Absorption and Feces Formation in the Large Intestine
		The Defecation Reflex
	23.8 Digestive activities occur in three overlapping phases: cephalic, gastric, and intestinal.
		Cephalic Phase
		Gastric Phase
		Intestinal Phase
	23.9 Metabolism includes the catabolism and anabolism of molecules.
		Metabolic Reactions
		Carbohydrate Metabolism
		Lipid Metabolism
		Protein Metabolism
	23.10 Food molecules supply energy for life processes and serve as building blocks for complex molecules.
		Guidelines for Healthy Eating
		Minerals
		Vitamins
	Zachary’s Story: Epilogue and Discussion
	Concept and Resource Summary
	Understanding the Concepts
Chapter 24: THE URINARY SYSTEM
	Sam’s Story
	Introduction
	24.1 The kidneys regulate the composition of the blood, produce hormones, and excrete wastes.
	24.2 As urine forms, it travels through the renal medulla, calyces, and renal pelvis.
		External Anatomy of the Kidneys
		Internal Anatomy of the Kidneys
		Blood Supply of the Kidneys
	24.3 Each nephron consists of a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule.
		Parts of a Nephron
		Histology of the Nephron and Collecting Duct
	24.4 Urine is formed by glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion.
	24.5 Water and solutes are forced through the filtration membrane during glomerular filtration.
		The Filtration Membrane
		Net Filtration Pressure
		Glomerular Filtration Rate
	24.6 Tubular reabsorption reclaims needed substances from the filtrate, while tubular secretion discharges unneeded substances.
		Principles of Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion
		Reabsorption and Secretion in the Proximal Convoluted Tubule
		Reabsorption in the Nephron Loop
		Reabsorption and Secretion in the Distal Convoluted Tubule and Collecting Duct
	24.7 Five hormones regulate tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion.
		Renin–Angiotensin–Aldosterone System
		Antidiuretic Hormone
		Atrial Natriuretic Peptide
		Parathyroid Hormone
	24.8 The kidneys regulate the rate of water loss in urine.
		Formation of Dilute Urine
		Formation of Concentrated Urine
	24.9 The kidneys help maintain the overall fluid and acid–base balance of the body.
		Fluid Balance
		Acid–Base Balance
	24.10 The ureters transport urine from the renal pelvis to the urinary bladder, where it is stored until micturition.
		Ureters
		Urinary Bladder
		Urethra
	Sam’s Story: Epilogue and Discussion
	Concept and Resource Summary
	Understanding the Concepts
Chapter 25: THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS AND DEVELOPMENT
	Ryan and Megan’s Story
	Introduction
	25.1 The scrotum supports and regulates the temperature of thetestes, which produces permatozoa.
		Scrotum
		Testes
		Hormonal Regulation of Male Reproductive Function
	25.2 Sperm travel through the epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory ducts, and urethra.
		Reproductive System Ducts in Males
		Accessory Sex Glands
		Semen
		Penis
	25.3 After a secondary oocyte is discharged from an ovary, it may undergo fertilization and implantation in the uterus.
		Ovaries
		Uterine Tubes
		Uterus
	25.4 The vagina is a passageway for childbirth; the mammary glands secrete milk.
		Vagina
		Vulva
		Perineum
		Mammary Glands
	25.5 The female reproductive cycle includes the ovarian and uterine cycles.
		Hormonal Regulation of the Female Reproductive Cycle
		Phases of the Female Reproductive Cycle
	25.6 The zygote divides into a morula and then a blastocyst that implants in the endometrium of the uterus.
		First Week of Development
	25.7 Major tissues and organs develop during embryonic development and grow and differentiate during fetal development.
		Second Week of Development
		Third Week of Development
		Fourth through Eighth Weeks of Development
		Ninth through Thirty-Eighth Week of Development
	25.8 During pregnancy the uterus expands, displacing and compressing maternal organs.
		Hormones of Pregnancy
		Changes during Pregnancy
	25.9 Labor includes dilation of the cervix and expulsion of the fetus and placenta.
		Labor and Delivery
		Adjustments of the Infant at Birth
	25.10 Lactation is influenced by prolactin, estrogens, progesterone, and oxytocin.
	Ryan and Megan’s Story: Epilogue and Discussion
	Concept and Resource Summary
	Understanding the Concepts
Appendix A: Measurements
Appendix B: Periodic Table
Appendix C: Normal Values for Selected Blood Tests
Appendix D: Normal Values for Selected Urine Tests
Appendix E: Answers to Checkpoint Questions
Credits
Glossary
Index