Anatomy & Physiology

Cover
Brief Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Authors
Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
1. The Human Body: An Orientation
	1.1. Form (Anatomy) Determines Function (Physiology)
	1.2. The Body’s Organization Ranges from Atoms to the Entire Organism
	1.3. What are the Requirements for Life?
	1.4. Homeostasis is Maintained by Negative Feedback
	1.5. Anatomical Terms Describe Body Directions, Regions, and Planes
	1.6. Many Internal Organs Lie in Membrane-Lined Body Cavities
2. Chemistry Comes Alive
	Part 1: Basic Chemistry
		2.1. Matter is the Stuff of the Universe and Energy Moves Matter
		2.2. The Properties of an Element Depend on the Structure of its Atoms
		2.3. Atoms Bound Together Form Molecules; Different Molecules can Make Mixtures
		2.4. The Three Types of Chemical Bonds are Ionic, Covalent, and Hydrogen
		2.5. Chemical Reactions Occur When Electrons are Shared, Gained, or Lost
	Part 2: Biochemistry
		2.6. Inorganic Compounds Include Water, Salts, and many Acids and Bases
		2.7. Organic Compounds are Made by Dehydration Synthesis and Broken Down by Hydrolysis
		2.8. Carbohydrates Provide an Easily used Energy Source for the Body
		2.9. Lipids Insulate Body Organs, Build Cell Membranes, and Provide Stored Energy
		2.10. Proteins are the Body’s Basic Structural Material and have many Vital Functions
		2.11. DNA and RNA Store, Transmit, and help Express Genetic Information
		2.12. ATP Transfers Energy to Other Compounds
3. Cells: The Living Units
	3.1. Cells are the Smallest Unit of Life
	Part 1: Plasma Membrane
		3.2. The Fluid Mosaic Model Depicts the Plasma Membrane as a Double Layer of Phospholipids with Embedded Proteins
		3.3. Passive Membrane Transport is Diffusion of Molecules Down their Concentration Gradient
		3.4. Active Membrane Transport Directly or Indirectly Uses ATP
		Focus Figure 3.1. Primary Active Transport: The Na+-K+ Pump
		3.5. Selective Diffusion Establishes the Membrane Potential
		3.6. Cell Adhesion Molecules and Membrane Receptors Allow the Cell to Interact with its Environment
		Focus Figure 3.2. G Proteins
	Part 2: The Cytoplasm
		3.7. Cytoplasmic Organelles Each Perform a Specialized Task
		3.8. Cilia and Microvilli are Two Main Types of Cellular Extensions
	Part 3: Nucleus
		3.9. The Nucleus Includes the Nuclear Envelope, the Nucleolus, and Chromatin
		3.10. The Cell Cycle Consists of Interphase and a Mitotic Phase
		3.11. Messenger RNA Carries Instructions from DNA for Building Proteins
		Focus Figure 3.3. Mitosis
		Focus Figure 3.4. Translation
		3.12. Apoptosis Disposes of Unneeded Cells; Autophagy and Proteasomes Dispose of Unneeded Organelles and Proteins
4. Tissue: The Living Fabric
	4.1. Tissue Samples are Fixed, Sliced, and Stained for Microscopy
	4.2. Epithelial Tissue Covers Body Surfaces, Lines Cavities, and Forms Glands
	4.3. Connective Tissue is the Most Abundant and Widely Distributed Tissue in the Body
	4.4. Muscle Tissue is Responsible for Body Movement
	4.5. Nervous Tissue is a Specialized Tissue of the Nervous System
	4.6. The Cutaneous Membrane is Dry; Mucous and Serous Membranes are Wet
	4.7. Tissue Repair Involves Inflammation, Organization, and Regeneration
5. The Integumentary System
	5.1. The Skin Consists of Two Layers: The Epidermis and Dermis
	5.2. The Epidermis is a Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium
	5.3. The Dermis Consists of Papillary and Reticular Layers
	5.4. Melanin, Carotene, and Hemoglobin Determine Skin Color
	5.5. Hair Consists of Dead, Keratinized Cells
	5.6. Nails are Scale-Like Modifications of the Epidermis
	5.7. Sweat Glands help Control Body Temperature, and Sebaceous Glands Secrete Sebum
	5.8. First and Foremost, the Skin is a Barrier
	5.9. Skin Cancer and Burns are Major Challenges to the Body
6. Bones and Skeletal Tissues
	6.1. Hyaline, Elastic, and Fibrocartilage help Form the Skeleton
	6.2. Bones Perform Several Important Functions
	6.3. Bones are Classified by their Location and Shape
	6.4. The Gross Structure of all Bones Consists of Compact Bone Sandwiching Spongy Bone
	6.5. Bones Develop Either by Intramembranous or Endochondral Ossification
	6.6. Bone Remodeling Involves Bone Deposit and Removal
	6.7. Bone Repair Involves Hematoma and Callus Formation, and Remodeling
	6.8. Bone Disorders Result from Abnormal Bone Deposition and Resorption
7. The Skeleton
	Part 1: The Axial Skeleton
		7.1. The Skull Consists of 8 Cranial Bones and 14 Facial Bones
		7.2. The Vertebral Column is a Flexible, Curved Support Structure
		7.3. The Thoracic Cage is the Bony Structure of the Chest
	Part 2: The Appendicular Skeleton
		7.4. Each Pectoral Girdle Consists of a Clavicle and a Scapula
		7.5. The Upper Limb Consists of the Arm, Forearm, and Hand
		7.6. The Hip Bones Attach to the Sacrum, Forming the Pelvic Girdle
		7.7. The Lower Limb Consists of the Thigh, Leg, and Foot
8. Joints
	8.1. Joints are Classified into Three Structural and Three Functional Categories
	8.2. In Fibrous Joints, the Bones are Connected by Fibrous Tissue
	8.3. In Cartilaginous Joints, the Bones are Connected by Cartilage
	8.4. Synovial Joints have a Fluid-Filled Joint Cavity
	8.5. Five Examples Illustrate the Diversity of Synovial Joints
	Focus Figure 8.1. Synovial Joints
	8.6. Joints are Easily Damaged by Injury, Inflammation, and Degeneration
9. Muscles and Muscle Tissue
	9.1. There are Three Types of Muscle Tissue
	9.2. A Skeletal Muscle is Made Up of Muscle Fibers, Nerves, Blood Vessels, and Connective Tissues
	9.3. Skeletal Muscle Fibers Contain Calcium-Regulated Molecular Motors
	9.4. Motor Neurons Stimulate Skeletal Muscle Fibers to Contract
	Focus Figure 9.1. Events at the Neuromuscular Junction
	Focus Figure 9.2. Excitation-Contraction Coupling
	Focus Figure 9.3. Cross Bridge Cycle
	9.5. Wave Summation and Motor Unit Recruitment Allow Smooth, Graded Skeletal Muscle Contractions
	9.6. ATP for Muscle Contraction is Produced Aerobically or Anaerobically
	9.7. The Force, Velocity, and Duration of Skeletal Muscle Contractions are Determined by a Variety of Factors
	9.8. How Does Skeletal Muscle Respond to Exercise?
	9.9. Smooth Muscle is Nonstriated Involuntary Muscle
10. The Muscular System
	10.1. For any Movement, Muscles can Act in One of Three Ways
	10.2. How are Skeletal Muscles Named?
	10.3. Fascicle Arrangements help Determine Muscle Shape and Force
	Focus Figure 10.1. Muscle Action
	10.4. Muscles Acting with Bones Form Lever Systems
	10.5. A Muscle’s Origin and Insertion Determine its Action
	Table 10.1. Muscles of the Head, Part I: Facial Expression
	Table 10.2. Muscles of the Head, Part II: Mastication and Tongue Movement
	Table 10.3. Muscles of the Anterior Neck and Throat: Swallowing
	Table 10.4. Muscles of the Neck and Vertebral Column: Head Movements and Trunk Extension
	Table 10.5. Deep Muscles of the Thorax: Breathing
	Table 10.6. Muscles of the Abdominal Wall: Trunk Movements and Compression of Abdominal Viscera
	Table 10.7. Muscles of the Pelvic Floor and Perineum: Support of Abdominopelvic Organs
	Table 10.8. Superficial Muscles of the Anterior and Posterior Thorax: Movements of the Scapula and Arm
	Table 10.9. Muscles Crossing the Shoulder Joint: Movements of the Arm (Humerus)
	Table 10.10. Muscles Crossing the Elbow Joint: Flexion and Extension of the Forearm
	Table 10.11. Muscles of the Forearm: Movements of the Wrist, Hand, and Fingers
	Table 10.12. Summary: Actions of Muscles Acting on the Arm, Forearm, and Hand
	Table 10.13. Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand: Fine Movements of the Fingers
	Table 10.14. Muscles Crossing the Hip and Knee Joints: Movements of the Thigh and Leg
	Table 10.15. Muscles of the Leg: Movements of the Ankle and Toes
	Table 10.16. Intrinsic Muscles of the Foot: Toe Movement and Arch Support
	Table 10.17. Summary: Actions of Muscles Acting on the Thigh, Leg, and Foot
11. Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue
	11.1. The Nervous System Receives, Integrates, and Responds to Information
	11.2. Neuroglia Support and Maintain Neurons
	11.3. Neurons are the Structural Units of the Nervous System
	11.4. The Resting Membrane Potential Depends on Differences in Ion Concentration and Permeability
	Focus Figure 11.1. Resting Membrane Potential
	11.5. Graded Potentials are Brief, Short-Distance Signals within a Neuron
	11.6. Action Potentials are Brief, Long-Distance Signals within a Neuron
	Focus Figure 11.2. Action Potential
	11.7. Synapses Transmit Signals between Neurons
	Focus Figure 11.3. Chemical Synapse
	11.8. Postsynaptic Potentials Excite or Inhibit the Receiving Neuron
	11.9. The Effect of a Neurotransmitter Depends on its Receptor
	11.10. Neurons Act Together, Making Complex Behaviors Possible
12. The Central Nervous System
	12.1. Folding During Development Determines the Complex Structure of the Adult Brain
	12.2. The Cerebral Hemispheres Consist of Cortex, White Matter, and the Basal Nuclei
	12.3. The Diencephalon Includes the Thalamus, Hypothalamus, and Epithalamus
	12.4. The Brain Stem Consists of the Midbrain, Pons, and Medulla Oblongata
	12.5. The Cerebellum Adjusts Motor Output, Ensuring Coordination and Balance
	12.6. Functional Brain Systems Span Multiple Brain Structures
	12.7. The Interconnected Structures of the Brain Allow Higher Mental Functions
	12.8. The Brain is Protected by Bone, Meninges, Cerebrospinal Fluid, and the Blood Brain Barrier
	12.9. Brain Injuries and Disorders have Devastating Consequences
	12.10. The Spinal Cord is a Reflex Center and Conduction Pathway
	12.11. Neuronal Pathways Carry Sensory and Motor Information to and from the Brain
13. The Peripheral Nervous System and Reflex Activity
	Part 1: Sensory Receptors and Sensation
		13.1. Receptors, Ascending Pathways, and Cerebral Cortex Process Sensory Information
		13.2. Sensory Receptors are Activated by Changes in the Internal or External Environment
		13.3. The Eye Converts Light Energy into Electrical Signals that are Relayed to the Brain, Allowing us to See
		13.4. Receptors in the Olfactory Epithelium and Taste Buds Detect Chemicals, Allowing us to Smell and Taste
		13.5. Inner Ear Mechanoreceptors Enable Hearing and Balance
	Part 2: Transmision Lines: Nerves and their Structure and Repair
		13.6. Nerves are Cordlike Bundles of Axons that Conduct Sensory and Motor Impulses
		13.7. There are 12 Pairs of Cranial Nerves
		13.8. 31 Pairs of Spinal Nerves Innervate the Body
	Part 3: Motor Endings and Motor Activity
		13.9. Peripheral Motor Endings Connect Nerves to their Effectors
		13.10. There are Three Levels of Motor Control
	Part 4: Reflex Activity
		13.11. The Reflex Arc Enables Rapid and Predictable Responses
		13.12. Spinal Reflexes are Somatic Reflexes Mediated by the Spinal Cord
		Focus Figure 13.1. Stretch Reflex
14. The Autonomic Nervous System
	14.1. The ANS Differs from the Somatic Nervous System in that it can Stimulate or Inhibit its Effectors
	14.2. The ANS Consists of the Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Divisions
	14.3. Long Preganglionic Parasympathetic Fibers Originate in the Craniosacral CNS
	14.4. Short Preganglionic Sympathetic Fibers Originate in the Thoracolumbar CNS
	14.5. Visceral Reflex Arcs have the Same Five Components as Somatic Reflex Arcs
	14.6. Acetylcholine and Norepinephrine are the Major ANS Neurotransmitters
	14.7. The Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Divisions Usually Produce Opposite Effects
	14.8. The Hypothalamus Oversees ANS Activity
	14.9. Most ANS Disorders Involve Abnormalities in Smooth Muscle Control
15. The Endocrine System
	15.1. The Endocrine System is One of the Body’s Two Major Control Systems
	15.2. The Chemical Structure of a Hormone Determines how it Acts
	15.3. Hormones Act Through Second Messengers or by Activating Specific Genes
	15.4. Three Types of Stimuli Cause Hormone Release
	15.5. Cells Respond to a Hormone if they have a Receptor for that Hormone
	15.6. The Hypothalamus Controls Release of Hormones from the Pituitary Gland in Two Different Ways
	Focus Figure 1 5.1. Hypothalamus and Pituitary Interactions
	15.7. The Thyroid Gland Controls Metabolism
	15.8. The Parathyroid Glands are Primary Regulators of Blood Calcium Levels
	15.9. The Adrenal Glands Produce Hormones Involved in Electrolyte Balance and the Stress Response
	15.10. The Pineal Gland Secretes Melatonin
		
16. Blood
	16.1. The Functions of Blood are Transport, Regulation, and Protection
	16.2. Blood Consists of Plasma and Formed Elements
	16.3. Erythrocytes Play a Crucial Role in Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport
	16.4. Leukocytes Defend the Body
	16.5. Platelets are Cell Fragments that help Stop Bleeding
	16.6. Hemostasis Prevents Blood Loss
	16.7. Transfusion can Replace Lost Blood
	16.8. Blood Tests Give Insights into a Patient’s Health
17. The Cardiovascular System: The Heart
	17.1. The Heart has Four Chambers and Pumps Blood Through the Pulmonary and Systemic Circuits
	17.2. Heart Valves Make Blood Flow in One Direction
	17.3. Blood Flows from Atrium to Ventricle, and then to Either the Lungs or the Rest of the Body
	Focus Figure 17.1. Blood Flow Through the Heart
	17.4. Intercalated Discs Connect Cardiac Muscle Fibers into a Functional Syncytium
	17.5. Pacemaker Cells Trigger Action Potentials Throughout the Heart
	17.6. The Cardiac Cycle Describes the Mechanical Events Associated with Blood Flow Through the Heart
	17.7. Stroke Volume and Heart Rate are Regulated to Alter Cardiac Output
18. The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels
	Part 1: Blood Vesel Structure and Function
		18.1. Most Blood Vessel Walls have Three Layers
		18.2. Arteries are Pressure Reservoirs, Distributing Vessels, or Resistance Vessels
		18.3. Capillaries are Exchange Vessels
		18.4. Veins are Blood Reservoirs that Return Blood Toward the Heart
		18.5. Anastomoses are Special Interconnections between Blood Vessels
	Part 2: Physiology of Circulation
		18.6. Blood Flows from High to Low Pressure Against Resistance
		18.7. Blood Pressure Decreases as Blood Flows from Arteries through Capillaries and into Veins
		18.8. Blood Pressure is Regulated by Short- and Long-Term Controls
		18.9. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Controls Determine Blood Flow through Tissues
		18.10. Slow Blood Flow through Capillaries Promotes Diffusion of Nutrients and Gases, and Bulk Flow of Fluids
		Focus Figure 18.1. Bulk Flow Across Capillary Walls
	Part 3: Circulatory Pathways: Blood Vesels of the Body
		18.11. The Vessels of the Systemic Circulation Transport Blood to all Body Tissues
		Table 18.3. Pulmonary and Systemic Circulations
		Table 18.4. The Aorta and Major Arteries of the Systemic Circulation
		Table 18.5. Arteries of the Head and Neck
		Table 18.6. Arteries of the Upper Limbs and Thorax
		Table 18.7. Arteries of the Abdomen
		Table 18.8. Arteries of the Pelvis and Lower Limbs
		Table 18.9. The Venae Cavae and the Major Veins of the Systemic Circulation
		Table 18.10. Veins of the Head and Neck
		Table 18.11. Veins of the Upper Limbs and Thorax
		Table 18.12. Veins of the Abdomen
		Table 18.13. Veins of the Pelvis and Lower Limbs
19. The Lymphatic System and Lymphoid Organs and Tissues
	19.1. The Lymphatic System Includes Lymphatic Vessels, Lymph, and Lymph Nodes
	19.2. Lymphoid Cells and Tissues are Found in Lymphoid Organs and in Connective Tissue of Other Organs
	19.3. Lymph Nodes Filter Lymph and House Lymphocytes
	19.4. The Spleen Removes Bloodborne Pathogens and Aged Red Blood Cells
	19.5. Malt Guards the Body’s Entryways Against Pathogens
	19.6. Tlymphocytes Mature in the Thymus
20. The Immune System: Innate and Adaptive Body Defenses
	Part 1: Innate Defenses
		20.1. Surface Barriers Act as the First Line of Defense to Keep Invaders Out of the Body
		20.2. Innate Internal Defenses are Cells and Chemicals that Act as the Second Line of Defense
	Part 2: Adaptive Defenses
		20.3. Antigens are Substances that Trigger the Body’s Adaptive Defenses
		20.4. B and T Lymphocytes and Antigen-Presenting Cells are Cells of the Adaptive Immune Response
		20.5. In Humoral Immunity, Antibodies are Produced that Target Extracellular Antigens
		20.6. Cellular Immunity Consists of T Lymphocytes that Direct Adaptive Immunity or Attack Cellular Targets
		20.7. Insufficient or Overactive Immune Responses Create Problems
21. The Respiratory System
	Part 1: Functional Anatomy
		21.1. The Upper Respiratory System Warms, Humidifies, and Filters Air
		21.2. The Lower Respiratory System Consists of Conducting and Respiratory Zone Structures
		21.3. Each Multilobed Lung Occupies its Own Pleural Cavity
	Part 2: Respiratory Physiology
		21.4. Volume Changes Cause Pressure Changes, which Cause Air to Move
		21.5. Measuring Respiratory Volumes, Capacities, and Flow Rates helps us Assess Ventilation
		21.6. Gases Exchange by Diffusion between the Blood, Lungs, and Tissues
		21.7. Oxygen is Transported by Hemoglobin, and Carbon Dioxide is Transported in Three Different Ways
		Focus Figure 21.1. The Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve
		21.8. Respiratory Centers in the Brain Stem Control Breathing with Input from Chemoreceptors and Higher Brain Centers
		21.9. Exercise and High Altitude Bring about Respiratory Adjustments
		21.10. Lung Diseases are Major Causes of Disability and Death
22. The Digestive System
	Part 1: Overview of the Digestive System
		22.1. What Major Processes Occur During Digestive System Activity?
		22.2. The GI Tract has Four Layers and is Usually Surrounded by Peritoneum
		22.3. The GI Tract has its Own Nervous System Called the Enteric Nervous System
	Part 2: Functional Anatomy of the Digestive System
		22.4. Ingestion Occurs only at the Mouth
		22.5. The Pharynx and Esophagus Move Food from the Mouth to the Stomach
		22.6. The Stomach Temporarily Stores Food and Begins Protein Digestion
		22.7. The Liver Secretes Bile; the Pancreas Secretes Digestive Enzymes
		22.8. The Small Intestine is the Major Site for Digestion and Absorption
		22.9. The Large Intestine Absorbs Water and Eliminates Feces
	Part 3: Physiology of Digestion and Absorption
		22.10. Digestion Hydrolyzes Food into Nutrients that are Absorbed Across the Gut Epithelium
		22.11. How is Each Type of Nutrient Processed?
23. Nutrition, Metabolism, and Energy Balance
	Part 1: Nutrients
		23.1. Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Proteins Supply Energy and are used as Building Blocks
		23.2. Most Vitamins Act as Coenzymes; Minerals have many Roles in the Body
	Part 2: Metabolism
		23.3. Metabolism is the Sum of all Biochemical Reactions in the Body
		23.4. Carbohydrate Metabolism is the Central Player in ATP Production
		Focus Figure 23.1. Oxidative Phosphorylation
		23.5. Lipid Metabolism is Key for Long-Term Energy Storage and Release
		23.6. Amino Acids are used to Build Proteins or for Energy
		23.7. Energy is Stored in the Absorptive State and Released in the Postabsorptive State
		23.8. The Liver Metabolizes, Stores, and Detoxifies
	Part 3: Energy Balance
		23.9. Neural and Hormonal Factors Regulate Food Intake
		23.10. Thyroxine is the Major Hormone that Controls Basal Metabolic Rate
		23.11. The Hypothalamus Acts as the Body’s Thermostat
24. The Urinary System
	24.1. The Kidneys have Three Distinct Regions and a Rich Blood Supply
	24.2. Nephrons are the Functional Units of the Kidney
	24.3. Overview: Filtration, Absorption, and Secretion are the Key Processes of Urine Formation
	24.4. Urine Formation, Step 1: The Glomeruli Make Filtrate
	24.5. Urine Formation, Step 2: Most of the Filtrate is Reabsorbed into the Blood
	24.6. Urine Formation, Step 3: Certain Substances are Secreted into the Filtrate
	24.7. The Kidneys Create and use an Osmotic Gradient to Regulate Urine Concentration and Volume
	Focus Figure 24.1. Medullary Osmotic Gradient
	24.8. Renal Function is Evaluated by Analyzing Blood and Urine
	24.9. The Ureters, Bladder, and Urethra Transport, Store, and Eliminate Urine
25. Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance
	25.1. Body Fluids Consist of Water and Solutes in Three Main Compartments
	25.2. Both Intake and Output of Water are Regulated
	25.3. Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, and Phosphate Levels are Tightly Regulated
	25.4. Chemical Buffers and Respiratory Regulation Rapidly Minimize pH Changes
	25.5. Renal Regulation is a Long-Term Mechanism for Controlling Acid-Base Balance
	25.6. Abnormalities of Acid-Base Balance are Classified as Metabolic or Respiratory
26. The Reproductive System
	Part 1: Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System
		26.1. The Testes are Enclosed and Protected by the Scrotum
		26.2. The Penis is the Copulatory Organ of the Male
		26.3. Sperm Travel from the Testes to the Body Exterior through a System of Ducts
		26.4. The Male Accessory Glands Produce the Bulk of Semen
	Part 2: Physiology of the Male Reproductive System
		26.5. The Male Sexual Response Includes Erection and Ejaculation
		26.6. Spermatogenesis is the Sequence of Events that Leads to Formation of Sperm
		26.7. Male Reproductive Function is Regulated by Hypothalamic, Anterior Pituitary, and Testicular Hormones
	Part 3: Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System
		26.8. Immature Eggs Develop in Follicles in the Ovaries
		26.9. The Female Duct System Includes the Uterine Tubes, Uterus, and Vagina
		26.10. The External Genitalia of the Female Include those Structures that Lie External to the Vagina
		26.11. The Mammary Glands Produce Milk
	Part 4: Physiology of the Female Reproductive System
		26.12. Oogenesis is the Sequence of Events that Leads to the Formation of Ova
		26.13. The Ovarian Cycle Consists of the Follicular Phase and the Luteal Phase
		26.14. Female Reproductive Function is Regulated by Hypothalamic, Anterior Pituitary, and Ovarian Hormones
		26.15. The Female Sexual Response is more Diverse and Complex than that of Males
	Part 5: Sexualy Transmited Infections
		26.16. Sexually Transmitted Infections Cause Reproductive and Other Disorders
Answers Appendix
Appendix A: Two Important Metabolic Pathways
Appendix B: The Genetic Code
Glossary
Photo and Illustration Credits
Index
Word Roots, Prefixes, Suffixes and Combining Forms