Analyzing Grammar - An Introduction

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Dedication......Page 7
Contents......Page 9
Preface and acknowledgments......Page 13
List of abbreviations......Page 16
1.1 Form, meaning, and use......Page 21
1.2 Aspects of linguistic form......Page 22
1.3 Grammar as a system of rules......Page 24
1.4 Conclusion......Page 25
2.1.1 Identifying word meanings......Page 27
2.1.2 Identifying meaningful elements within words......Page 30
2.1.3 Summary......Page 31
2.2.1 Definition of "morpheme"......Page 32
2.2.2 Different kinds of morphemes......Page 33
2.3 Representing word structure......Page 34
2.4 Analyzing position classes......Page 38
2.5 A typology of word structure......Page 42
Notes......Page 45
3.1 Ambiguity......Page 46
3.2 Constituency......Page 48
3.3 Hierarchy......Page 52
3.4.1 Word-level (lexical) categories......Page 53
3.4.2 Phrases and phrasal categories......Page 55
3.5.1 Phrase Structure diagrams......Page 58
3.5.2 Constraints on tree structures......Page 61
3.5.3 Phrase Structure rules......Page 62
3.6 Pronouns and proper names as phrasal categories......Page 64
3.7 Conclusion......Page 66
Notes......Page 70
4 Semantic roles and Grammatical Relations......Page 71
4.1 Simple sentences and propositions......Page 72
4.2 Arguments and semantic roles......Page 73
4.3.1 Subjects and objects......Page 75
4.3.2 Terms vs. oblique arguments......Page 77
4.4 Adjuncts vs. arguments......Page 78
4.5 "Indirect objects" and secondary objects......Page 81
4.6 Conclusion......Page 82
Notes......Page 84
5.1 Lexical entries......Page 86
5.2 Argument structure and subcategorization......Page 87
5.2.1 Transitivity and valence......Page 89
5.2.2  Valence alternations......Page 90
5.3 Properties of a well-formed clause......Page 92
5.3.1 Selectional restrictions......Page 93
5.3.2 Subcategorization......Page 94
5.3.3 Well-formedness conditions......Page 95
5.3.4 Annotated Phrase Structure trees......Page 97
5.5 Zero-anaphora (“pro-drop”)......Page 99
5.6 Further notes on English Phrase Structure......Page 101
5.7 Conclusion......Page 103
Notes......Page 105
6.1 Complements and adjuncts of N......Page 107
6.2 Determiners......Page 109
6.3 Adjectives and Adjective Phrases (AP)......Page 110
6.4 Possession and recursion......Page 112
6.4.1 Alienable vs. inalienable possession......Page 113
6.4.2 Recursive rules......Page 114
6.5 English NP structure (continued)......Page 117
6.6 Conclusion......Page 118
Notes......Page 121
7.1 Case......Page 122
7.1.1 Grammatical case vs. semantic case......Page 123
7.1.2 Ergativity......Page 125
7.1.3 Split ergativity......Page 127
7.2.1 Verb agreement......Page 131
7.2.2 Ergative agreement systems......Page 134
7.2.3 Possessor agreement......Page 136
7.2.4 Agreement with N......Page 137
7.3 Conclusion......Page 138
Notes......Page 146
8.1.1 Gender systems......Page 148
8.1.2 Classifier systems......Page 151
8.1.3 Distinguishing gender from classifier systems......Page 153
8.2 Pronouns......Page 155
8.2.1 Anaphora vs. deixis......Page 156
8.2.2 Reflexive vs. emphatic pronouns......Page 157
8.2.3 Personal pronouns: agreement features......Page 158
8.2.4 Examples of pronoun systems......Page 160
8.2.5 Summary......Page 162
Notes......Page 166
9.1 Tense......Page 167
9.1.1 How many tenses?......Page 169
9.1.2 Absolute vs. relative tense (reference point)......Page 171
9.2.1 Lexical aspect......Page 172
9.2.2 Morphological aspect......Page 174
9.3 Perfect vs. perfective......Page 178
9.4 Combinations of tense and aspect......Page 181
9.5 Mood......Page 183
9.6 Modality......Page 185
9.7 Conclusion......Page 188
Notes......Page 192
10 Non-verbal predicates......Page 193
10.1 Basic clause patterns with and without the copula......Page 194
10.1.1 English: copula plus predicate complement......Page 196
10.1.2 Tagalog: verbless clauses......Page 198
10.2 Existential and possessive clauses......Page 200
10.3 Cross-linguistic patterns......Page 201
10.4 A note on "impersonal constructions"......Page 205
10.5 Further notes on the predicate complement (XCOMP) relation......Page 207
10.6 Conclusion......Page 209
Notes......Page 214
11.1 Direct vs. indirect speech acts......Page 216
11.2 Basic word order......Page 217
11.3 Commands (imperative sentences)......Page 219
11.4.1 Yes--No questions......Page 223
11.4.2 Content questions......Page 225
11.4.3.1 Mandarin......Page 226
11.4.3.2 Huallaga Quechua......Page 228
11.4.3.3 Russian......Page 229
11.5 Negation......Page 231
11.6 Conclusion......Page 234
Notes......Page 237
12.1 Coordinate vs. subordinate clauses......Page 238
12.2 Complement clauses......Page 240
12.3 Direct vs. indirect speech......Page 244
12.3.1 Indirect quotation......Page 245
12.3.2 Direct quotation......Page 246
12.4 Adjunct (or Adverbial) clauses......Page 247
12.5 Relative clauses......Page 250
12.5.1 Restrictive vs. non-restrictive relative clauses......Page 251
12.5.2.1 Externally headed relative clauses......Page 252
12.5.2.2 Internally headed relative clauses and related constructions......Page 253
12.5.3 Relative pronoun vs. relativizer......Page 254
12.5.4 Relativization strategies......Page 256
12.5.5 Headless relatives and free relatives......Page 258
12.6 Conclusion......Page 260
Notes......Page 264
13 Derivational morphology......Page 267
13.1 Stems, roots, and compounds......Page 268
13.2 Criteria for distinguishing inflection vs. derivation......Page 270
13.3.1 Change in category with no change in meaning......Page 273
13.3.2 Change in meaning with no change in category......Page 274
13.3.3.1 Nominalization......Page 276
13.3.3.3 Adjectivizers......Page 278
13.4.1 Limitations of the position class chart......Page 279
13.4.2 Word Formation Rules......Page 282
13.5 Conclusion......Page 285
Notes......Page 288
14 Valence-changing morphology......Page 290
14.1.1 Passive......Page 291
14.1.2 Applicatives......Page 293
14.1.3 Reflexives and reciprocals......Page 294
14.2.1 Causatives......Page 297
14.2.2 Adversatives......Page 299
14.3 Incorporation......Page 300
14.4 Conclusion......Page 302
Notes......Page 307
15 Allomorphy......Page 308
15.1 Suppletion......Page 310
15.2 Morphophonemic changes......Page 312
15.3 Rules for suppletive allomorphy......Page 316
15.4 Inflectional classes......Page 317
15.5 Conclusion......Page 319
Notes......Page 323
16 Non-linear morphology......Page 324
16.1.1 Infixation......Page 325
16.2.1 Mutation......Page 327
16.2.2 "Suprafixes"......Page 328
16.3.1 Reduplication......Page 329
16.3.2 Subtractive morphology......Page 330
16.3.3 Metathesis......Page 331
16.4 Inflectional rules......Page 332
16.5 Conclusion......Page 333
Notes......Page 335
17 Clitics......Page 336
17.1 What is a "word?"......Page 337
17.2 Types of clitics......Page 339
17.2.1.1 Bound words......Page 340
17.2.2 Special clitics......Page 342
17.2.2.1 Second position clitics......Page 343
17.3 Clitic pronouns or agreement?......Page 345
17.4 Conclusion......Page 349
Notes......Page 353
Possible outline for grammar sketch......Page 354
Part B......Page 355
Glossary......Page 361
References......Page 372
Language index......Page 380
Subject index......Page 382