Analysis and Design of Analog Integrated Circuits

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Preface
Chapter 1: Models for Integrated-Circuit Active Devices
	Introduction
	Depletion Region of a pn Junction
		Depletion-Region Capacitance
		Junction Breakdown
	Large-Signal Behavior of Bipolar Transistors
		Large-Signal Models in the Forward-Active Region
		Effects of Collector Voltage on Large-Signal Characteristics in the Forward-Active Region
		Saturation and Inverse-Active Regions
		Transistor Breakdown Voltages
		Dependence of Transistor Current Gain βF on Operating Conditions
	Small-Signal Models of Bipolar Transistors
		Transconductance
		Base-Charging Capacitance
		Input Resistance
		Output Resistance
		Basic Small-Signal Model of the Bipolar Transistor
		Collector-Base Resistance
		Parasitic Elements in the Small-Signal Model
		Specification of Transistor Frequency Response
	Large-Signal Behavior of Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors
		Transfer Characteristics of MOS Devices
		Comparison of Operating Regions of Bipolar and MOS Transistors
		Decomposition of Gate-Source Voltage
		Threshold Temperature Dependence
		MOS Device Voltage Limitations
	Small-Signal Models of MOS Transistors
		Transconductance
		Intrinsic Gate-Source and Gate-Drain Capacitance
		Input Resistance
		Output Resistance
		Basic Small-Signal Model of the MOS Transistor
		Body Transconductance
		Parasitic Elements in the Small-Signal Model
		MOS Transistor Frequency Response
	Short-Channel Effects in MOS Transistors
		Velocity Saturation from the Horizontal Field
		Transconductance and Transition Frequency
		Mobility Degradation from the Vertical Field
	Weak Inversion in MOS Transistors
		Drain Current in Weak Inversion
		Transconductance and Transition Frequency in Weak Inversion
	Substrate Current Flow in MOS Transistors
	Summary of Active-Device Parameters
Chapter 2: Bipolar, MOS, and BiCMOS Integrated-Circuit Technology
	Introduction
	Basic Processes in Integrated-Circuit Fabrication
		Electrical Resistivity of Silicon
		Solid-State Diffusion
		Electrical Properties of Diffused Layers
		Photolithography
		Epitaxial Growth
		Ion Implantation
		Local Oxidation
		Polysilicon Deposition
	High-Voltage Bipolar Integrated-Circuit Fabrication
	Advanced Bipolar Integrated-Circuit Fabrication
	Active Devices in Bipolar Analog Integrated Circuits
		Integrated-Circuit npn Transistors
		Integrated-Circuit pnp Transistors
	Passive Components in Bipolar Integrated Circuits
		Diffused Resistors
		Epitaxial and Epitaxial Pinch Resistors
		Integrated-Circuit Capacitors
		Zener Diodes
		Junction Diodes
	Modifications to the Basic Bipolar Process
		Dielectric Isolation
		Compatible Processing for High-Performance Active Devices
		High-Performance Passive Components
	MOS Integrated-Circuit Fabrication
	Active Devices in MOS Integrated Circuits
		n-Channel Transistors
		p-Channel Transistors
		Depletion Devices
		Bipolar Transistors
	Passive Components in MOS Technology
		Resistors
		Capacitors in MOS Technology
		Latchup in CMOS Technology
	BiCMOS Technology
	Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors
	Interconnect Delay
	Economics of Integrated-Circuit Fabrication
		Yield Considerations in Integrated-Circuit Fabrication
		Cost Considerations in Integrated-Circuit Fabrication
	SPICE Model-Parameter Files
Chapter 3: Single-Transistor and Multiple-Transistor Amplifiers
	Device Model Selection for Approximate Analysis of Analog Circuits
	Two-Port Modeling of Amplifiers
	Basic Single-Transistor Amplifier Stages
		Common-Emitter Configuration
		Common-Source Configuration
		Common-Base Configuration
		Common-Gate Configuration
		Common-Base and Common-Gate Configurations with Finite r0
			Common-Base and Common-Gate Input Resistance
			Common-Base and Common-Gate Output Resistance
		Common-Collector Configuration (Emitter Follower)
		Common-Drain Configuration (Source Follower)
		Common-Emitter Amplifier with Emitter Degeneration
		Common-Source Amplifier with Source Degeneration
	Multiple-Transistor Amplifier Stages
		The CC-CE, CC-CC, and Darlington Configurations
		The Cascode Configuration
			The Bipolar Cascode
			The MOS Cascode
		The Active Cascode
		The Super Source Follower
	Differential Pairs
		The dc Transfer Characteristic of an Emitter-Coupled Pair
		The dc Transfer Characteristic with Emitter Degeneration
		The dc Transfer Characteristic of a Source-Coupled Pair
		Introduction to the Small-Signal Analysis of Differential Amplifiers
		Small-Signal Characteristics of Balanced Differential Amplifiers
		Device Mismatch Effects in Differential Amplifiers
			Input Offset Voltage and Current
			Input Offset Voltage of the Emitter-Coupled Pair
			Offset Voltage of the Emitter-Coupled Pair: Approximate Analysis
			Offset Voltage Drift in the Emitter-Coupled Pair
			Input Offset Current of the Emitter-Coupled Pair
			Input Offset Voltage of the Source-Coupled Pair
			Offset Voltage of the Source-Coupled Pair: Approximate Analysis
			Offset Voltage Drift in the Source-Coupled Pair
			Small-Signal Characteristics of Unbalanced Differential Amplifiers
	Elementary Statistics and the Gaussian Distribution
Chapter 4: Current Mirrors, Active Loads, and References
	Introduction
	Current Mirrors
		General Properties
		Simple Current Mirror
			Bipolar
			MOS
		Simple Current Mirror with Beta Helper
			Bipolar
			MOS
		Simple Current Mirror with Degeneration
			Bipolar
			MOS
		Cascode Current Mirror
			Bipolar
			MOS
		Wilson Current Mirror
			Bipolar
			MOS
	Active Loads
		Motivation
		Common-Emitter–Common-Source Amplifier with Complementary Load
		Common-Emitter–Common-Source Amplifier with Depletion Load
		Common-Emitter–Common-Source Amplifier with Diode-Connected Load
		Differential Pair with Current-Mirror Load
			Large-Signal Analysis
			Small-Signal Analysis
			Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
	Voltage and Current References
		Low-Current Biasing
			Bipolar Widlar Current Source
			MOS Widlar Current Source
			Bipolar Peaking Current Source
			MOS Peaking Current Source
		Supply-Insensitive Biasing
			Widlar Current Sources
			Current Sources Using Other Voltage Standards
			Self-Biasing
		Temperature-Insensitive Biasing
			Band-Gap-Referenced Bias Circuits in Bipolar Technology
			Band-Gap-Referenced Bias Circuits in CMOS Technology
	Matching Considerations in Current Mirrors
		Bipolar
		MOS
	Input Offset Voltage of Differential Pair with Active Load
		Bipolar
		MOS
Chapter 5: Output Stages
	Introduction
	The Emitter Follower as an Output Stage
		Transfer Characteristics of the Emitter-Follower
		Power Output and Efficiency
		Emitter-Follower Drive Requirements
		Small-Signal Properties of the Emitter Follower
	The Source Follower as an Output Stage
		Transfer Characteristics of the Source Follower
		Distortion in the Source Follower
	Class B Push–Pull Output Stage
		Transfer Characteristic of the Class B Stage
		Power Output and Efficiency of the Class B Stage
		Practical Realizations of Class B Complementary Output Stages
		All-npn Class B Output Stage
		Quasi-Complementary Output Stages
		Overload Protection
	CMOS Class AB Output Stages
		Common-Drain Configuration
		Common-Source Configuration with Error Amplifiers
		Alternative Configurations
			Combined Common-Drain Common-Source Configuration
			Combined Common-Drain Common-Source Configuration with High Swing
			Parallel Common-Source Configuration
Chapter 6: Operational Amplifiers with Single-Ended Outputs
	Applications of Operational Amplifiers
		Basic Feedback Concepts
		Inverting Amplifier
		Noninverting Amplifier
		Differential Amplifier
		Nonlinear Analog Operations
		Integrator, Differentiator
		Internal Amplifiers
			Switched-Capacitor Amplifier
			Switched-Capacitor Integrator
	Deviations from Ideality in Real Operational Amplifiers
		Input Bias Current
		Input Offset Current
		Input Offset Voltage
		Common-Mode Input Range
		Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
		Power-Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR)
		Input Resistance
		Output Resistance
		Frequency Response
		Operational-Amplifier Equivalent Circuit
	Basic Two-Stage MOS Operational Amplifiers
		Input Resistance, Output Resistance, and Open-Circuit Voltage Gain
		Output Swing
		Input Offset Voltage
		Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
		Common-Mode Input Range
		Power-Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR)
		Effect of Overdrive Voltages
		Layout Considerations
	Two-Stage MOS Operational Amplifiers with Cascodes
	MOS Telescopic-Cascode Operational Amplifiers
	MOS Folded-Cascode Operational Amplifiers
	MOS Active-Cascode Operational Amplifiers
	Bipolar Operational Amplifiers
		The dc Analysis of the NE5234 Operational Amplifier
		Transistors that Are Normally Off
		Small-Signal Analysis of the NE5234 Operational Amplifier
		Calculation of the Input Offset Voltage and Current of the NE5234
Chapter 7: Frequency Response of Integrated Circuits
	Introduction
	Single-Stage Amplifiers
		Single-Stage Voltage Amplifiers and the Miller Effect
			The Bipolar Differential Amplifier: Differential-Mode Gain
			The MOS Differential Amplifier: Differential-Mode Gain
		Frequency Response of the Common-Mode Gain for a Differential Amplifier
		Frequency Response of Voltage Buffers
			Frequency Response of the Emitter Follower
			Frequency Response of the Source Follower
		Frequency Response of Current Buffers
			Common-Base Amplifier Frequency Response
			Common-Gate Amplifier Frequency Response
	Multistage Amplifier Frequency Response
		Dominant-Pole Approximation
		Zero-Value Time Constant Analysis
		Cascode Voltage-Amplifier Frequency Response
		Cascode Frequency Response
		Frequency Response of a Current Mirror Loading a Differential Pair
		Short-Circuit Time Constants
	Analysis of the Frequency Response of the NE5234 Op Amp
		High-Frequency Equivalent Circuit of the NE5234
		Calculation of the -3-dB Frequency of the NE5234
		Nondominant Poles of the NE5234
	Relation Between Frequency Response and Time Response
Chapter 8: Feedback
	Ideal Feedback Equation
	Gain Sensitivity
	Effect of Negative Feedback on Distortion
	Feedback Configurations
		Series-Shunt Feedback
		Shunt-Shunt Feedback
		Shunt-Series Feedback
		Series-Series Feedback
	Practical Configurations and the Effect of Loading
		Shunt-Shunt Feedback
		Series-Series Feedback
		Series-Shunt Feedback
		Shunt-Series Feedback
		Summary
	Single-Stage Feedback
		Local Series-Series Feedback
		Local Series-Shunt Feedback
	The Voltage Regulator as a Feedback Circuit
	Feedback Circuit Analysis Using Return Ratio
		Closed-Loop Gain Using Return Ratio
		Closed-Loop Impedance Formula Using Return Ratio
		Summary—Return-Ratio Analysis
	Modeling Input and Output Ports in Feedback Circuits
Chapter 9: Frequency Response and Stability of Feedback Amplifiers
	Introduction
	Relation Between Gain and Bandwidth in Feedback Amplifiers
	Instability and the Nyquist Criterion
	Compensation
		Theory of Compensation
		Methods of Compensation
		Two-Stage MOS Amplifier Compensation
		Compensation of Single-Stage CMOS Op Amps
		Nested Miller Compensation
	Root-Locus Techniques
		Root Locus for a Three-Pole Transfer Function
		Rules for Root-Locus Construction
		Root Locus for Dominant-Pole Compensation
		Root Locus for Feedback-Zero Compensation
	Slew Rate
		Origin of Slew-Rate Limitations
		Methods of Improving Slew-Rate in Two-Stage Op Amps
		Improving Slew-Rate in Bipolar Op Amps
		Improving Slew-Rate in MOS Op Amps
		Effect of Slew-Rate Limitations on Large-Signal Sinusoidal Performance
	Analysis in Terms of Return-Ratio Parameters
	Roots of a Quadratic Equation
Chapter 10: Nonlinear Analog Circuits
	Introduction
	Analog Multipliers Employing the Bipolar Transistor
		The Emitter-Coupled Pair as a Simple Multiplier
		The dc Analysis of the Gilbert Multiplier Cell
		The Gilbert Cell as an Analog Multiplier
		A Complete Analog Multiplier
		The Gilbert Multiplier Cell as a Balanced Modulator and Phase Detector
	Phase-Locked Loops (PLL)
		Phase-Locked Loop Concepts
		The Phase-Locked Loop in the Locked Condition
		Integrated-Circuit Phase-Locked Loops
	Nonlinear Function Synthesis
Chapter 11: Noise in Integrated Circuits
	Introduction
	Sources of Noise
		Shot Noise
		Thermal Noise
		Flicker Noise (1/f Noise)
		Burst Noise (Popcorn Noise)
		Avalanche Noise
	Noise Models of Integrated-Circuit Components
		Junction Diode
		Bipolar Transistor
		MOS Transistor
		Resistors
		Capacitors and Inductors
	Circuit Noise Calculations
		Bipolar Transistor Noise Performance
		Equivalent Input Noise and the Minimum Detectable Signal
	Equivalent Input Noise Generators
		Bipolar Transistor Noise Generators
		MOS Transistor Noise Generators
	Effect of Feedback on Noise Performance
		Effect of Ideal Feedback on Noise Performance
		Effect of Practical Feedback on Noise Performance
	Noise Performance of Other Transistor Configurations
		Common-Base Stage Noise Performance
		Emitter-Follower Noise Performance
		Differential-Pair Noise Performance
	Noise in Operational Amplifiers
	Noise Bandwidth
	Noise Figure and Noise Temperature
		Noise Figure
		Noise Temperature
Chapter 12: Fully Differential Operational Amplifiers
	Introduction
	Properties of Fully Differential Amplifiers
	Small-Signal Models for Balanced Differential Amplifiers
	Common-Mode Feedback
		Common-Mode Feedback at Low Frequencies
		Stability and Compensation Considerations in a CMFB Loop
	CMFB Circuits
		CMFB Using Resistive Divider and Amplifier
		CMFB Using Two Differential Pairs
		CMFB Using Transistors in the Triode Region
		Switched-Capacitor CMFB
	Fully Differential Op Amps
		A Fully Differential Two-Stage Op Amp
		Fully Differential Telescopic Cascode Op Amp
		Fully Differential Folded-Cascode Op Amp
		A Differential Op Amp with Two Differential Input Stages
		Neutralization
	Unbalanced Fully Differential Circuits
	Bandwidth of the CMFB Loop
	Analysis of a CMOS Fully Differential Folded-Cascode Op Amp
		DC Biasing
		Low-Frequency Analysis
		Frequency and Time Responses in a Feedback Application
Index