An Introduction To Surface Analysis By XPS And AES

An Introduction 
to Surface Analysis 
by XPS and AES......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
Preface......Page 11
Acknowledgements......Page 13
1.1 Analysis of Surfaces......Page 15
1.2.1 Spectroscopists' notation......Page 17
1.3 X- ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy ( XPS)......Page 19
1.4 Auger Electron Spectroscopy ( AES)......Page 21
1.5 Scanning Auger Microscopy ( SAM)......Page 24
1.6 The Depth of Analysis in Electron Spectroscopy......Page 25
1.7 Comparison of XPS and AES/ SAM......Page 27
Analytical Equipment......Page 28
2.1 The Vacuum System......Page 31
2.2 The Sample......Page 33
2.3.1 The twin anode X- ray source......Page 36
2.3.2 X- ray monochromators......Page 38
2.4 The Electron Gun for AES......Page 42
2.4.1 Electron sources......Page 43
2.5.1 The cylindrical mirror analyser......Page 49
2.5.2 The hemispherical sector analyser......Page 51
2.6.1 Channel electron multipliers......Page 59
2.7 Small Area XPS......Page 61
2.7.1 Lens- defined small area XPS......Page 62
2.8 XPS imaging and Mapping......Page 63
2.8.1 Serial acquisition......Page 64
2.8.2 Parallel acquisition......Page 65
2.9 Lateral Resolution in Smail Area XPS......Page 68
2.10 Angle Resolved XPS......Page 70
3.1 Qualitative Analysis......Page 73
3.1.1 Unwanted features in electron spectra......Page 74
3.1.2 Data acquisition......Page 76
3.2.1 X- ray photoelectron spectroscopy......Page 78
3.2.2 Electron induced Auger electron spectroscopy......Page 80
3.2.3 The Auger parameter......Page 81
3.2.4 Chemical state plots......Page 83
3.2.6 Multiple! splitting......Page 85
3.3 Quantitative Analysis......Page 87
3.3.1 Factors affecting the quantification of electron spectra......Page 88
33.2 Quantification in XPS......Page 89
3.3.3 Quantification in AES......Page 90
4.1.1 Angle resolved electron spectroscopy......Page 93
4.1.1.1 Elastic scattering......Page 100
4.1.1.2 Compositional depth profiles by ARXPS......Page 101
4.1.1.3 Recent advances in ARXPS......Page 103
4.1.2 Variation of analysis depth......Page 105
4.2.1 The sputtering process......Page 107
4.2.2 Experimental method......Page 108
4.23 Sputter yield and etch rate......Page 110
4.2.4 Factors affecting the etch rate......Page 111
4.2.5 Factors affecting the depth resolution......Page 113
4.2.6 Calibration......Page 117
4.2.7 Ion gun design......Page 118
4.3.2 Ball cratering......Page 121
4.4 Conclusions......Page 124
5.2 Metallurgy......Page 127
5.2.1 Grain- boundary segregation......Page 128
5.2.2 Electronic structure of metallic alloys......Page 134
5.2.3 Surface engineering......Page 138
5.3 Corrosion Science......Page 145
5.4 Ceramics and Catalysis......Page 153
5.5.1 Mapping semiconductor devices using AES......Page 157
5.5.2 Depth profiling of semiconductor materials......Page 160
5.5.3 Ultra- thin layers studied by ARXPS......Page 162
5.6 Polymeric Materials......Page 163
5.7 Adhesion Science......Page 171
6 Comparison of XPS and AES with Other 
Analytical Techniques......Page 179
6.1 X- ray Analysis in the Electron Microscope......Page 181
6.2 Electron Analysis in the Electron Microscope......Page 184
6.3 Mass Spectrometry for Surface Analysis......Page 186
6.4 Ion Scattering......Page 192
6.5 Concluding Remarks......Page 196
Glossary......Page 197
Bibliography......Page 209
Appendix 1: Auger Electron Energies......Page 217
Appendix 2: Table of Binding Energies Accessible with AlKa Radiation......Page 218
Index......Page 221