An introduction to radiation protection

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Contents
Preface
Authors
1. The structure of matter
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 The atom
	1.3 The structure of the atom
	1.4 Elements and atomic number
	1.5 Isotopes and mass number
	1.6 Ancient and modern theories
	Summary of key points
	Revision questions
2. Radioactivity and radiation
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Alpha, beta and gamma radiation
	2.3 Electronvolt
	2.4 The mechanism of radioactive decay
	2.5 Natural radioactive series
	2.6 Induced radioactivity
	2.7 The unit of radioactivity
	2.8 Nuclide chart
	2.9 Interaction of radiation with matter
		2.9.1 Charged particles
		2.9.2 X and . radiations
		2.9.3 Neutrons
	2.10 Penetrating powers of nuclear radiations
	Summary of key points
	Revision questions
3. Radiation units
	3.1 Absorption of energy
	3.2 Ionization
	3.3 Absorbed dose
	3.4 Equivalent dose
	3.5 Effective dose
	3.6 Submultiples
	3.7 Dose rate
	3.8 Flux
	3.9 Relationship of units
	3.10 International radiation symbols
	Summary of key points
	Revision questions
4. Biological effects of radiation
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Basic human physiology
		4.2.1 Circulatory system
		4.2.2 Respiratory system
		4.2.3 Digestive system
	4.3 Cell biology
	4.4 Interaction of radiation with cells
	4.5 Harmful tissue reactions
		4.5.1 Acute radiation effects
		4.5.2 Late tissue reactions
	4.6 Stochastic effects: cancer induction
	4.7 Stochastic effects: heritable
	4.8 Detriment
	Summary of key points
	Revision questions
5. Natural and man-made radiation
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Cosmic radiation
	5.3 Radiation from terrestrial sources
	5.4 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM)
	5.5 Radioactivity in the body
		5.5.1 Radon
	5.6 Summary of doses from natural radiation
	5.7 Man-made radiation exposure
		5.7.1 Diagnostic radiology
		5.7.2 Radiotherapy
		5.7.3 Nuclear medicine
		5.7.4 Radioactive waste
		5.7.5 Atmospheric fallout
		5.7.6 Occupational exposure
	5.8 Summary of current sources of radiation
	Summary of key points
	Revision questions
6. The system of radiological protection
	6.1 The role of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP)
	6.2 The 2007 recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (Publication 103)
	6.3 Recommended dose limits
		6.3.1 Basis of dose limits
		6.3.2 Recommended dose limits for workers
		6.3.3 Notes on the dose limits for workers
		6.3.4 Recommended dose limits for individual members of the public
	6.4 Planned exposure situations
	6.5 Emergency exposure situations
	6.6 Existing exposure situations
	Summary of key points
	Revision questions
7. Radiation detection and measurement
	7.1 General principles
	7.2 Ionization of a gas
		7.2.1 Ionization chamber
		7.2.2 Proportional counter
		7.2.3 Geiger–Müller counter
	7.3 Solid-state detectors
		7.3.1 Mechanism
		7.3.2 Semiconductor detectors
		7.3.3 Scintillation detectors
		7.3.4 Luminescence detectors
	7.4 Activation effect
	7.5 Pulse counting systems
		7.5.1 Basic counting systems
		7.5.2 Pulse Height Analyzer (PHA)
		7.5.3 Ratemeter
	7.6 Maintenance, testing and calibration of radiation-monitoring instrumentation
		7.6.1 Initial testing
		7.6.2 Operator pre-use checks
		7.6.3 Periodic examination and testing (including calibration)
	Summary of key points
	Revision questions
8. The external radiation hazard
	8.1 Source of the hazard
	8.2 Time
	8.3 Distance
		8.3.1 A point source
		8.3.2 A line source
		8.3.3 A disc source
	8.4 Shielding
		8.4.1 Half-value layer
	8.5 Neutron sources
	8.6 Personal dose control
	8.7 Survey monitoring
		8.7.1 Radiation survey monitoring
		8.7.2 X and . radiation monitors
		8.7.3 Neutron monitors
	8.8 Personnel monitoring equipment
		8.8.1 Personal dosimetry
		8.8.2 Thermoluminescent dosimeters
		8.8.3 Optically stimulated luminescence dosimeters
		8.8.4 Personal electronic dosimeter
		8.8.5 Fast neutron dosimeter
		8.8.6 Criticality locket
	8.9 Radiation records
	Summary of key points
	Revision questions
9. The internal radiation hazard
	9.1 Uncontained radioactivity
	9.2 Routes of entry
	9.3 Assessment of dose
		9.3.1 Dose coefficient
		9.3.2 Annual limit of intake
	9.4 Control of the contamination hazard
		9.4.1 Basic principles
		9.4.2 Area classification
		9.4.3 Protective clothing
		9.4.4 House rules and training of personnel
	9.5 Radiotoxicity and laboratory classifications
	9.6 Design of areas for radioactive work
		9.6.1 Walls, floors and ceilings
		9.6.2 Working surfaces
		9.6.3 Glove boxes
		9.6.4 Fume cupboards
	9.7 Treatment of contaminated personnel
	9.8 Contamination monitoring
		9.8.1 Sensitivity
		9.8.2 Direct surface contamination monitoring
		9.8.3 Smear surveys
		9.8.4 Air monitoring
	9.9 Personal monitoring
	Summary of key points
	Revision questions
10. The principles of risk assessment
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Hazards, scenarios and risk
		10.2.1 Nomenclature
		10.2.2 Risk scenarios
		10.2.3 Likelihoods and consequences
		10.2.4 Suitable and sufficient risk assessments
		10.2.5 Types of risk assessments
	10.3 The basic steps in risk assessment
	10.4 Probabilistic risk assessments
	10.5 Uncertainty, sensitivity and acceptability
		10.5.1 Uncertainty and sensitivity
		10.5.2 Acceptability of risk
	10.6 Risk perception and communication
	Summary of key points
	Revision questions
11. Practical health physics techniques
	11.1 Basic techniques
	11.2 Analysis techniques
		11.2.1 Identification of unknown samples
		11.2.2 Energy determination
		11.2.3 Determination of half-life
		11.2.4 Gross alpha and beta counting
		11.2.5 Corrections for resolving time
		11.2.6 Counting statistics
	11.3 Leak testing of radioactive sealed sources
	Summary of key points
	Revision questions
12. Legislation and regulations related to radiation protection
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP)
	12.3 The Euratom directive
	12.4 Converting the EC directive into UK law
	12.5 Regulatory framework under the Health and Safety at Work Act
		12.5.1 Regulations
		12.5.2 Approved code of practice and other guidance
		12.5.3 Radiation risk assessment
	12.6 Environmental regulatory framework in the United Kingdom
	12.7 Transport of radioactive material
	12.8 Summary of the UK regulatory framework
	12.9 Brief summary of international guidance and regulations in other countries
		12.9.1 France
		12.9.2 Germany
		12.9.3 Japan
		12.9.4 United States
		12.9.5 Australia
		12.9.6 New Zealand
	Summary of key points
	Revision questions
13. Radiation protection in the nuclear industry
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Fission
		13.2.1 The fission process
		13.2.2 Chain reactions and criticality
		13.2.3 Fission products
		13.2.4 Transuranic elements
		13.2.5 Activation products
	13.3 Basic features of reactor systems
		13.3.1 The core and control system
		13.3.2 The cooling system
		13.3.3 The biological shield
	13.4 Different reactor systems
		13.4.1 Power reactors
		13.4.2 Small modular reactors
		13.4.3 Research reactors
	13.5 Refuelling reactors
	13.6 Radiation hazards from reactors
		13.6.1 General
		13.6.2 Sources of radiation
			13.6.2.1 Radiation from the core
			13.6.2.2 Radiation from the coolant
		13.6.3 Sources of radioactive contamination
			13.6.3.1 Beta emitters
			13.6.3.2 Coolant leaks
			13.6.3.3 Containment
		13.6.4 The shutdown reactor
			13.6.4.1 Maintenance
			13.6.4.2 External radiation
			13.6.4.3 Contamination
	13.7 Fuel storage ponds
		13.7.1 Introduction
		13.7.2 Criticality
		13.7.3 Loss of shielding
		13.7.4 Operational aspects
		13.7.5 Pond instrumentation
	13.8 The nuclear fuel cycle
		13.8.1 Front-end operations
			13.8.1.1 Uranium mining
			13.8.1.2 Uranium enrichment
			13.8.1.3 Fuel fabrication
		13.8.2 Back-end operations
			13.8.2.1 Fuel reprocessing
			13.8.2.2 Long-term storage
			13.8.2.3 Waste and decommissioning
	13.9 Safety analysis of nuclear facilities
		13.9.1 Deterministic safety analysis
		13.9.2 Probabilistic safety analysis
		13.9.3 Severe accident analysis
	Summary of key points
	Revision questions
14. Radioactive waste and the decommissioning of radioactive facilities
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Radioactive liquid waste
	14.3 Radioactive gaseous waste
	14.4 Radioactive solid waste
	14.5 Radiological environmental impact of releases
		14.5.1 Legal requirements
		14.5.2 Methodology
			14.5.2.1 Definition of source term
			14.5.2.2 Mode of discharge
			14.5.2.3 Characterization of receiving environment
			14.5.2.4 Identification of exposure pathways
			14.5.2.5 Assessment of doses and identification of reference person
			14.5.2.6 Criteria
			14.5.2.7 Operational surveys and reviews
		14.5.3 Application to disposals of solid waste
		14.5.4 Effects on non-human species
	14.6 Decommissioning of radioactive facilities
		14.6.1 Planning and preparation
		14.6.2 Stages of decommissioning
			14.6.2.1 Nuclear power plants
			14.6.2.2 Research reactors
			14.6.2.3 Other facilities in the nuclear fuel cycle
			14.6.2.4 Minor facilities
		14.6.3 Risk assessment for decommissioning
		14.6.4 Radiological protection in decommissioning
		14.6.5 Site release
	14.7 Transport of radioactive material
	14.8 Regulations
	Summary of key points
	Revision questions
15. Radiation protection in the non-nuclear industry
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 X-rays
		15.2.1 General
		15.2.2 X-ray equipment
		15.2.3 Quality and intensity of X-rays: the X-ray spectrum
		15.2.4 Protection against X-rays: general principles
		15.2.5 Monitoring of X-ray installations
		15.2.6 Protection in industrial radiography
		15.2.7 Protection in research applications
		15.2.8 X-rays in other industrial applications
	15.3 Sealed sources
		15.3.1 General principles of protection
		15.3.2 Portable moisture/density gauges
		15.3.3 Industrial radiography equipment
		15.3.4 Well-logging devices
		15.3.5 Radiation risk assessment for work with a sealed source
	15.4 Unsealed sources
	15.5 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM)
	Summary of key points
	Revision questions
16. Radiation protection in medicine
	16.1 Applications
	16.2 General principles and organization
	16.3 Diagnostic procedures
		16.3.1 Diagnostic radiography
		16.3.2 Diagnostic fluoroscopy
		16.3.3 Computed tomography
		16.3.4 Dose reduction techniques for diagnostic radiography
	16.4 Radiotherapy
	16.5 Nuclear medicine
		16.5.1 Diagnostic radioisotope tests and nuclear medicine imaging
		16.5.2 Radioisotope therapy
	16.6 Control and disposal of radioactive materials
	Summary of key points
	Revision questions
17. Radiological incidents and emergencies
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale
	17.3 Loss of shielding
		17.3.1 Small sealed sources
		17.3.2 Large sealed sources
		17.3.3 Entry into shielded cells
		17.3.4 Reactor fuel-handling accidents
	17.4 Loss of containment
		17.4.1 Minor spillage of radioactivity
		17.4.2 Major spills of radioactivity
		17.4.3 Major releases from nuclear facilities
			17.4.3.1 Windscale
			17.4.3.2 Three Mile Island
			17.4.3.3 Chernobyl
			17.4.3.4 Fukushima
			17.4.3.5 Other potential sources
	17.5 Uncontrolled criticality
		17.5.1 General
		17.5.2 Reactors
		17.5.3 Reactor fuel plants
	17.6 Pre-planning for emergencies
		17.6.1 Background
		17.6.2 Radiological factors
		17.6.3 Training
		17.6.4 Dissemination of information
	17.7 The emergency organization
	Summary of key points
	Revision questions
18. The organization and administration of radiation protection services
	18.1 The overall process
	18.2 Standards and regulations
	18.3 Design and operation
	18.4 Review and audit
	18.5 The health physics organization
	18.6 Documents and reports
	18.7 Training
	Summary of key points
Appendix A: List of elements
Appendix B: Relationship of units
Appendix C: Answers to numerical questions
Bibliography
Index