An introduction to fire dynamics

Contents......Page 8
Preface......Page 12
List of Symbols and Abbreviations......Page 14
1 Fire science and combustion......Page 20
1.1.1 The nature of fuels......Page 21
1.1.2 Thermal decomposition and stability of polymers......Page 25
1.2 The Physical chemistry of combustion in fires......Page 30
1.2.1 The ideal gas law......Page 32
1.2.2 Vapour pressure of liquids......Page 35
1.2.3 Combustion and energy release......Page 36
1.2.4 The mechanism of gas phase combustion......Page 42
1.2.5 Temperatures of flames......Page 45
Problems......Page 48
2 Heat transfer......Page 50
2.1 Summary of the heat transfer equations......Page 51
2.2.1 Steady state conduction......Page 53
2.2.2 Non-steady state conduction......Page 55
2.2.3 Numerical methods of solving time-dependent conduction problems......Page 63
2.3 Convection......Page 67
2.4 Radiation......Page 71
2.4.1 Configuration factors......Page 76
2.4.2 Radiation from hot gases and non-luminous flames......Page 84
2.4.3 Radiation from luminous flames and hot smoky gases......Page 88
Problems......Page 90
3.1.1 Measurement of flammability limits......Page 94
3.1.2 Characterization of the lower flammability limit......Page 98
3.1.3 Dependence of flammability limits on temperature and pressure......Page 101
3.1.4 Flammability diagrams......Page 104
3.2 The structure of a premixed flame......Page 107
3.3 Heat losses from premixed flames......Page 111
3.4 Measurement of burning velocities......Page 116
3.5.1 Variation of mixture composition......Page 119
3.5.2 Variation of temperature......Page 121
3.5.4 Addition of suppressants......Page 122
3.5.5 The effect of turbulence......Page 125
Problems......Page 126
4 Diffusion flames and fire plumes......Page 128
4.1 Laminar jet flames......Page 130
4.2 Turbulent jet flames......Page 135
4.3 Flames from natural fires......Page 136
4.3.1 The buoyant plume......Page 139
4.3.2 The fire plume......Page 145
4.3.3 Upward flows......Page 154
4.3.4 Interaction of the fire plume with compartment boundaries......Page 155
4.3.5 The effect of wind on the fire plume......Page 163
4.4 Some practical applications......Page 164
4.4.1 Radiation from flames......Page 165
4.4.2 The response of ceiling-mounted fire detectors......Page 168
4.4.3 Interaction between sprinkler sprays and the fire plume......Page 170
4.4.4 The removal of smoke......Page 172
4.4.5 Modelling......Page 173
Problems......Page 176
5.1 Burning of liquids......Page 178
5.1.1 Pool fires......Page 179
5.1.2 Burning of liquid droplets......Page 188
5.2.1 Burning of synthetic polymers......Page 191
5.2.2 Burning of wood......Page 201
5.2.3 Burning of dusts and powders......Page 209
Problems......Page 210
6.1 Ignition of flammable vapour/air mixtures......Page 212
6.2 Ignition of liquids......Page 221
6.2.1 Ignition of low flashpoint liquids......Page 226
6.2.2 Ignition of high flashpoint liquids......Page 227
6.3 Pilot ignition of solids......Page 230
6.3.1 Ignition during a continuous heat flux......Page 231
6.3.2 Ignition during a discontinuous heat flux......Page 241
6.4 Spontaneous ignition of  combustible solids......Page 246
6.5 Surface ignition by flame impingement......Page 247
6.6.1 Extinction of premixed flames......Page 248
6.6.2 Extinction of diffusion flames......Page 249
Problems......Page 251
7.1 Flame spread over liquids......Page 252
7.2.1 Surface orientation and direction of propagation......Page 256
7.2.2 Thickness of the fuel......Page 261
7.2.3 Density, thermal capacity and thermal conductivity......Page 263
7.2.4 Geometry of the sample......Page 264
7.2.5 Environmental effects......Page 265
7.3 Flame spread modelling......Page 274
7.5.1 Radiation-enhanced flame spread......Page 278
7.5.2 Rate of vertical spread......Page 279
Problems......Page 280
8.1 Spontaneous ignition in bulk solids......Page 282
8.1.1 Application of the Frank-Kamenetskii model......Page 283
8.1.2 The Thomas model......Page 288
8.1.3 Ignition of dust deposits and oil-soaked lagging......Page 290
8.1.4 Spontaneous ignition in haystacks......Page 293
8.2 Smouldering combustion......Page 294
8.2.1 Factors affecting the propagation of smouldering......Page 295
8.2.2 Transition from smouldering to flaming combustion......Page 303
8.2.3 Initiation of smouldering combustion......Page 304
8.2.4 The chemical requirements for smouldering......Page 306
8.3 Glowing Combustion......Page 307
Problems......Page 308
9 The pre-flashover compartment fire......Page 310
9.1 The growth period and the definition of flashover......Page 312
9.2.1 Conditions necessary for flashover......Page 315
9.2.2 Fuel and ventilation conditions necessary for flashover......Page 324
9.2.3 Factors affecting time to flashover......Page 335
9.2.4 Factors affecting fire  growth......Page 340
Problems......Page 343
10.1 Regimes of burning......Page 344
10.2 Fully-developed fire behaviour......Page 353
10.3.1 Experimental study of fully-developed fires in single compartments......Page 361
10.3.2 Mathematical models for compartment fire temperatures......Page 362
10.4 Fire resistance and fire severity......Page 372
10.5 Methods of calculating fire resistance......Page 379
10.6 Projection of flames from burning compartments......Page 386
10.7 Spread of fire from a compartment......Page 388
Problems......Page 389
11 The production and movement of smoke......Page 392
11.1 Production and measurement of smoke......Page 394
11.1.1 Production of smoke particles......Page 395
11.1.2 Measurement of particulate smoke......Page 398
11.1.3 Methods of test for smoke production potential......Page 401
11.2 Smoke movement......Page 405
11.2.1 Forces responsible for smoke movement......Page 406
11.2.2 Rate of smoke production in fires......Page 411
11.3 Smoke control systems......Page 415
11.3.1 Smoke control in large spaces......Page 416
11.3.2 Smoke control in shopping centres......Page 418
11.3.3 Smoke control on protected escape routes......Page 419
References......Page 426
Answers to Problems......Page 422
B......Page 458
F......Page 459
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M......Page 461
P......Page 462
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W......Page 464
Z......Page 465
C......Page 466
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